Introduction: content analyis
Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words or concepts within texts or sets of texts. Researchers quantify and analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part. Texts can be defined broadly as books, book chapters, essays, interviews, discussions, newspaper headlines and articles, historical documents, speeches, conversations, advertising, theater, informal conversation, or really any occurrence of communicative language. Texts in a single study may also represent a variety of different types of occurrences, such as Palmquist's 1990 study of two composition classes, in which he analyzed student and teacher interviews, writing journals, classroom discussions and lectures, and out-of-class interaction sheets. To conduct a content analysis on any such text, the text is coded, or broken down, into manageable categories on a variety of levels--word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme--and then examined using one of content analysis' basic methods: conceptual analysis or relational analysis.

History
Historically, content analysis was a time consuming process. Analysis was done manually, or slow mainframe computers were used to analyze punch cards containing data punched in by human coders. Single studies could employ thousands of these cards. Human error and time constraints made this method impractical for large texts. However, despite its impracticality, content analysis was already an often utilized research method by the 1940's. Although initially limited to studies that examined texts for the frequency of the occurrence of identified terms (word counts), by the mid-1950's researchers were already starting to consider the need for more sophisticated methods of analysis, focusing on concepts rather than simply words, and on semantic relationships rather than just presence (de Sola Pool 1959). While both traditions still continue today, content analysis now is also utilized to explore mental models, and their linguistic, affective, cognitive, social, cultural and historical significance.

Types of Content Analysis
In this guide, we discuss two general categories of content analysis: conceptual analysis and relational analysis. Conceptual analysis can be thought of as establishing the existence and frequency of concepts – most often represented by words of phrases – in a text. For instance, say you have a hunch that your favorite poet often writes about hunger. With conceptual analysis you can determine how many times words such as “hunger,” “hungry,” “famished,” or “starving” appear in a volume of poems. In contrast, relational analysis goes one step further by examining the relationships among concepts in a text. Returning to the “hunger” example, with relational analysis, you could identify what other words or phrases “hunger” or “famished” appear next to and then determine what different meanings emerge as a result of these groupings.
To read more about each type of content analysis, click on the items below:
Conceptual Analysis
Relational Analysis
Conceptual Analysis
Traditionally, content analysis has most often been thought of in terms of conceptual analysis. In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination, and the analysis involves quantifying and tallying its presence. Also known as thematic analysis [although this term is somewhat problematic, given its varied definitions in current literature--see Palmquist, Carley, & Dale (1997) vis-a-vis Smith (1992)], the focus here is on looking at the occurrence of selected terms within a text or texts, although the terms may be implicit as well as explicit. While explicit terms obviously are easy to identify, coding for implicit terms and deciding their level of implication is complicated by the need to base judgments on a somewhat subjective system. To attempt to limit the subjectivity, then (as well as to limit problems of reliability and validity), coding such implicit terms usually involves the use of either a specialized dictionary or contextual translation rules. And sometimes, both tools are used--a trend reflected in recent versions of the Harvard and Lasswell dictionaries.

Steps for Conducting Conceptual Analysis
The following discussion of steps that can be followed to code a text or set of texts during conceptual analysis use campaign speeches made by Bill Clinton during the 1992 presidential campaign as an example. To read about each step, click on the items in the list below:
Decide the level of analysis.
Decide how many concepts to code for.
Decide whether to code for existence or frequency of a concept.
Decide on how you will distinguish among concepts.
Develop rules for coding your texts.
Decide what to do with "irrelevant" information.
Code the texts.
Analyze your results.
First, the researcher must decide upon the level of analysis. With the health care speeches, to continue the example, the researcher must decide whether to code for a single word, such as "inexpensive," or for sets of words or phrases, such as "coverage for everyone."

The researcher must now decide how many different concepts to code for. This involves developing a pre-defined or interactive set of concepts and categories. The researcher must decide whether or not to code for every single positive or negative word that appears, or only certain ones that the researcher determines are most relevant to health care. Then, with this pre-defined number set, the researcher has to determine how much flexibility he/she allows him/herself when coding. The question of whether the researcher codes only from this pre-defined set, or allows him/herself to add relevant categories not included in the set as he/she finds them in the text, must be answered. Determining a certain number and set of concepts allows a researcher to examine a text for very specific things, keeping him/her on task. But introducing a level of coding flexibility allows new, important material to be incorporated into the coding process that could have significant bearings on one's results.

After a certain number and set of concepts are chosen for coding , the researcher must answer a key question: is he/she going to code for existence or frequency? This is important, because it changes the coding process. When coding for existence, "inexpensive" would only be counted once, no matter how many times it appeared. This would be a very basic coding process and would give the researcher a very limited perspective of the text. However, the number of times "inexpensive" appears in a text might be more indicative of importance. Knowing that "inexpensive" appeared 50 times, for example, compared to 15 appearances of "coverage for everyone," might lead a researcher to interpret that Clinton is trying to sell his health care plan based more on economic benefits, not comprehensive coverage. Knowing that "inexpensive" appeared, but not that it appeared 50 times, would not allow the researcher to make this interpretation, regardless of whether it is valid or not.

The researcher must next decide on the level of generalization, i.e. whether concepts are to be coded exactly as they appear, or if they can be recorded as the same even when they appear in different forms. For example, "expensive" might also appear as "expensiveness." The research needs to determine if the two words mean radically different things to him/her, or if they are similar enough that they can be coded as being the same thing, i.e. "expensive words." In line with this, is the need to determine the level of implication one is going to allow. This entails more than subtle differences in tense or spelling, as with "expensive" and "expensiveness."

Determining the level of implication would allow the researcher to code not only for the word "expensive," but also for words that imply "expensive." This could perhaps include technical words, jargon, or political euphemism, such as "economically challenging," that the researcher decides does not merit a separate category, but is better represented under the category "expensive," due to its implicit meaning of "expensive."

After taking the generalization of concepts into consideration, a researcher will want to create translation rules that will allow him/her to streamline and organize the coding process so that he/she is coding for exactly what he/she wants to code for. Developing a set of rules helps the researcher insure that he/she is coding things consistently throughout the text, in the same way every time. If a researcher coded "economically challenging" as a separate category from "expensive" in one paragraph, then coded it under the umbrella of "expensive" when it occurred in the next paragraph, his/her data would be invalid. The interpretations drawn from that data will subsequently be invalid as well. Translation rules protect against this and give the coding process a crucial level of consistency and coherence.


The next choice a researcher must make involves irrelevant information. The researcher must decide whether irrelevant information should be ignored (as Weber, 1990, suggests), or used to reexamine and/or alter the coding scheme. In the case of this example, words like "and" and "the," as they appear by themselves, would be ignored. They add nothing to the quantification of words like "inexpensive" and "expensive" and can be disregarded without impacting the outcome of the coding.

Once these choices about irrelevant information are made, the next step is to code the text. This is done either by hand, i.e. reading through the text and manually writing down concept occurrences, or through the use of various computer programs. Coding with a computer is one of contemporary conceptual analysis' greatest assets. By inputting one's categories, content analysis programs can easily automate the coding process and examine huge amounts of data, and a wider range of texts, quickly and efficiently. But automation is very dependent on the researcher's preparation and category construction. When coding is done manually, a researcher can recognize errors far more easily. A computer is only a tool and can only code based on the information it is given. This problem is most apparent when coding for implicit information, where category preparation is essential for accurate coding

Once the coding is done, the researcher examines the data and attempts to draw whatever conclusions and generalizations are possible. Of course, before these can be drawn, the researcher must decide what to do with the information in the text that is not coded. One's options include either deleting or skipping over unwanted material, or viewing all information as relevant and important and using it to reexamine, reassess and perhaps even alter one's coding scheme. Furthermore, given that the conceptual analyst is dealing only with quantitative data, the levels of interpretation and generalizability are very limited. The researcher can only extrapolate as far as the data will allow. But it is possible to see trends, for example, that are indicative of much larger ideas. Using the example from step three, if the concept "inexpensive" appears 50 times, compared to 15 appearances of "coverage for everyone," then the researcher can pretty safely extrapolate that there does appear to be a greater emphasis on the economics of the health care plan, as opposed to its universal coverage for all Americans. It must be kept in mind that conceptual analysis, while extremely useful and effective for providing this type of information when done right, is limited by its focus and the quantitative nature of its examination. To more fully explore the relationships that exist between these concepts, one must turn to relational analysis.

Relational Analysis
Relational analysis, like conceptual analysis, begins with the act of identifying concepts present in a given text or set of texts. However, relational analysis seeks to go beyond presence by exploring the relationships between the concepts identified. Relational analysis has also been termed semantic analysis (Palmquist, Carley, & Dale, 1997). In other words, the focus of relational analysis is to look for semantic, or meaningful, relationships. Individual concepts, in and of themselves, are viewed as having no inherent meaning. Rather, meaning is a product of the relationships among concepts in a text. Carley (1992) asserts that concepts are "ideational kernels;" these kernels can be thought of as symbols which acquire meaning through their connections to other symbols.

Relational Analysis: Theoretical Influences
Relational Analysis: Overview of Methodology
Relational Analysis: Steps for Conducting an Analysis

Theoretical Influences on Relational Analysis
The kind of analysis that researchers employ will vary significantly according to their theoretical approach. Key theoretical approaches that inform content analysis include linguistics and cognitive science.
Linguistic approaches to content analysis focus analysis of texts on the level of a linguistic unit, typically single clause units. One example of this type of research is Gottschalk (1975), who developed an automated procedure which analyzes each clause in a text and assigns it a numerical score based on several emotional/psychological scales. Another technique is to code a text grammatically into clauses and parts of speech to establish a matrix representation (Carley, 1990).

Approaches that derive from cognitive science include the creation of decision maps and mental models. Decision maps attempt to represent the relationship(s) between ideas, beliefs, attitudes, and information available to an author when making a decision within a text. These relationships can be represented as logical, inferential, causal, sequential, and mathematical relationships. Typically, two of these links are compared in a single study, and are analyzed as networks. For example, Heise (1987) used logical and sequential links to examine symbolic interaction. This methodology is thought of as a more generalized cognitive mapping technique, rather than the more specific mental models approach.

Mental models are groups or networks of interrelated concepts that are thought to reflect conscious or subconscious perceptions of reality. According to cognitive scientists, internal mental structures are created as people draw inferences and gather information about the world. Mental models are a more specific approach to mapping because beyond extraction and comparison because they can be numerically and graphically analyzed. Such models rely heavily on the use of computers to help analyze and construct mapping representations. Typically, studies based on this approach follow five general steps:
Identifing concepts
-Defining relationship types
-Coding the text on the basis of 1 and 2
-Coding the statements
-Graphically displaying and numerically analyzing the resulting maps
To create the model, a researcher converts a text into a map of concepts and relations; the map is then analyzed on the level of concepts and statements, where a statement consists of two concepts and their relationship. Carley (1990) asserts that this makes possible the comparison of a wide variety of maps, representing multiple sources, implicit and explicit information, as well as socially shared cognitions

Relational Analysis: Overview of Methods
As with other sorts of inquiry, initial choices with regard to what is being studied and/or coded for often determine the possibilities of that particular study. For relational analysis, it is important to first decide which concept type(s) will be explored in the analysis. Studies have been conducted with as few as one and as many as 500 concept categories. Obviously, too many categories may obscure your results and too few can lead to unreliable and potentially invalid conclusions. Therefore, it is important to allow the context and necessities of your research to guide your coding procedures.

The steps to relational analysis that we consider in this guide suggest some of the possible avenues available to a researcher doing content analysis. We provide an example to make the process easier to grasp. However, the choices made within the context of the example are but only a few of many possibilities. The diversity of techniques available suggests that there is quite a bit of enthusiasm for this mode of research. Once a procedure is rigorously tested, it can be applied and compared across populations over time. The process of relational analysis has achieved a high degree of computer automation but still is, like most forms of research, time consuming. Perhaps the strongest claim that can be made is that it maintains a high degree of statistical rigor without losing the richness of detail apparent in even more qualitative methods.

Steps for Conducting Relational Analysis
The following discussion of the steps (or, perhaps more accurately, strategies) that can be followed to code a text or set of texts during relational analysis. These explanations are accompanied by examples of relational analysis possibilities for statements made by Bill Clinton during the 1998 hearings. To read about each step, click on the items in the list below:
Identify the Question.
Choose a sample or samples for analysis.
Determine the type of analysis.
Reduce the text to categories and code for words or patterns.
Explore the relationships between concepts (Strength, Sign & Direction).
Code the relationships.
Perform Statisical Analyses.
Map out the Representations.

step:Identify the question
The question is important because it indicates where you are headed and why. Without a focused question, the concept types and options open to interpretation are limitless and therefore the analysis difficult to complete. Possibilities for the Hairy Hearings of 1998 might be: What did Bill Clinton say in the speech? OR What concrete information did he present to the public?

step:choose a sample
Once the question has been identified, the researcher must select sections of text/speech from the hearings in which Bill Clinton may have not told the entire truth or is obviously holding back information. For relational content analysis, the primary consideration is how much information to preserve for analysis. One must be careful not to limit the results by doing so, but the researcher must also take special care not to take on so much that the coding process becomes too heavy and extensive to supply worthwhile results.

step:Determine the type of analysis
Once the sample has been chosen for analysis, it is necessary to determine what type or types of relationships you would like to examine. There are different subcategories of relational analysis that can be used to examine the relationships in texts. For more information regarding subcategories of relational analysis, see the discussion of Three Subcategories of Relational Analysis.
In this example, we will use proximity analysis because it is concerned with the co-occurrence of explicit concepts in the text. In this instance, we are not particularly interested in affect extraction because we are trying to get to the hard facts of what exactly was said rather than determining the emotional considerations of speaker and receivers surrounding the speech which may be unrecoverable.

step: Reduce the text................
Once the subcategory of analysis is chosen, the selected text must be reviewed to determine the level of analysis. The researcher must decide whether to code for a single word, such as "perhaps," or for sets of words or phrases like "I may have forgotten."

At the simplest level, a researcher can code merely for existence. This is not to say that simplicity of procedure leads to simplistic results. Many studies have successfully employed this strategy. For example, Palmquist (1990) did not attempt to establish the relationships among concept terms in the classrooms he studied; his study did, however, look at the change in the presence of concepts over the course of the semester, comparing a map analysis from the beginning of the semester to one constructed at the end. On the other hand, the requirement of one's specific research question may necessitate deeper levels of coding to preserve greater detail for analysis.

In relation to our extended example, the researcher might code for how often Bill Clinton used words that were ambiguous, held double meanings, or left an opening for change or "re-evaluation." The researcher might also choose to code for what words he used that have such an ambiguous nature in relation to the importance of the information directly related to those words.

Step Five: Explore the Relationships Between Concepts
Once words are coded, the text can be analyzed for the relationships among the concepts set forth. There are three concepts which play a central role in exploring the relations among concepts in content analysis.
Strength of Relationship: Refers to the degree to which two or more concepts are related. These relationships are easiest to analyze, compare, and graph when all relationships between concepts are considered to be equal. However, assigning strength to relationships retains a greater degree of the detail found in the original text. Identifying strength of a relationship is key when determining whether or not words like unless, perhaps, or maybe are related to a particular section of text, phrase, or idea.

Sign of a Relationship: Refers to whether or not the concepts are positively or negatively related. To illustrate, the concept "bear" is negatively related to the concept "stock market" in the same sense as the concept "bull" is positively related. Thus "it's a bear market" could be coded to show a negative relationship between "bear" and "market". Another approach to coding for strength entails the creation of separate categories for binary oppositions. The above example emphasizes "bull" as the negation of "bear," but could be coded as being two separate categories, one positive and one negative. There has been little research to determine the benefits and liabilities of these differing strategies. Use of Sign coding for relationships in regard to the hearings my be to find out whether or not the words under observation or in question were used adversely or in favor of the concepts (this is tricky, but important to establishing meaning).

Direction of the Relationship: Refers to the type of relationship categories exhibit. Coding for this sort of information can be useful in establishing, for example, the impact of new information in a decision making process. Various types of directional relationships include, "X implies Y," "X occurs before Y" and "if X then Y," or quite simply the decision whether concept X is the "prime mover" of Y or vice versa. In the case of the 1998 hearings, the researcher might note that, "maybe implies doubt," "perhaps occurs before statements of clarification," and "if possibly exists, then there is room for Clinton to change his stance." In some cases, concepts can be said to be bi-directional, or having equal influence. This is equivalent to ignoring directionality. Both approaches are useful, but differ in focus. Coding all categories as bi-directional is most useful for exploratory studies where pre-coding may influence results, and is also most easily automated, or computer coded.

Step Six: Code the Relationships
One of the main differences between conceptual analysis and relational analysis is that the statements or relationships between concepts are coded. At this point, to continue our extended example, it is important to take special care with assigning value to the relationships in an effort to determine whether the ambiguous words in Bill Clinton's speech are just fillers, or hold information about the statements he is making.

Step Seven: Perform Statistical Analyses
This step involves conducting statistical analyses of the data you've coded during your relational analysis. This may involve exploring for differences or looking for relationships among the variables you've identified in your study. For more information about conducting statistical analysis, see our reference unit on Statistics.

Step Eight: Map the Representations
In addition to statistical analysis, relational analysis often leads to viewing the representations of the concepts and their associations in a text (or across texts) in a graphical -- or map -- form. Relational analysis is also informed by a variety of different theoretical approaches: linguistic content analysis, decision mapping, and mental models


Content Analysis: Commentary
The authors of this guide have created the following commentaries on content analysis. To read these commentaries, please click on the items below:
Issues of Reliability and Validity
Advantages of Content Analysis
Disadvantages of Content Analysis

Issues of Reliability & Validity
The issues of reliability and validity are concurrent with those addressed in other research methods. The reliability of a content analysis study refers to its stability, or the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a period of time; reproducibility, or the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in the same way; and accuracy, or the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard or norm statistically. Gottschalk (1995) points out that the issue of reliability may be further complicated by the inescapably human nature of researchers. For this reason, he suggests that coding errors can only be minimized, and not eliminated (he shoots for 80% as an acceptable margin for reliability).

On the other hand, the validity of a content analysis study refers to the correspondence of the categories to the conclusions, and the generalizability of results to a theory.
The validity of categories in implicit concept analysis, in particular, is achieved by utilizing multiple classifiers to arrive at an agreed upon definition of the category. For example, a content analysis study might measure the occurrence of the concept category "communist" in presidential inaugural speeches. Using multiple classifiers, the concept category can be broadened to include synonyms such as "red," "Soviet threat," "pinkos," "godless infidels" and "Marxist sympathizers." "Communist" is held to be the explicit variable, while "red," etc. are the implicit variables.

The overarching problem of concept analysis research is the challengeable nature of conclusions reached by its inferential procedures. The question lies in what level of implication is allowable, i.e. do the conclusions follow from the data or are they explainable due to some other phenomenon? For occurrence-specific studies, for example, can the second occurrence of a word carry equal weight as the ninety-ninth? Reasonable conclusions can be drawn from substantive amounts of quantitative data, but the question of proof may still remain unanswered.
This problem is again best illustrated when one uses computer programs to conduct word counts. The problem of distinguishing between synonyms and homonyms can completely throw off one's results, invalidating any conclusions one infers from the results. The word "mine," for example, variously denotes a personal pronoun, an explosive device, and a deep hole in the ground from which ore is extracted. One may obtain an accurate count of that word's occurrence and frequency, but not have an accurate accounting of the meaning inherent in each particular usage. For example, one may find 50 occurrences of the word "mine." But, if one is only looking specifically for "mine" as an explosive device, and 17 of the occurrences are actually personal pronouns, the resulting 50 is an inaccurate result. Any conclusions drawn as a result of that number would render that conclusion invalid.
The generalizability of one's conclusions, then, is very dependent on how one determines concept categories, as well as on how reliable those categories are. It is imperative that one defines categories that accurately measure the idea and/or items one is seeking to measure. Akin to this is the construction of rules. Developing rules that allow one, and others, to categorize and code the same data in the same way over a period of time, referred to as stability, is essential to the success of a conceptual analysis. Reproducibility, not only of specific categories, but of general methods applied to establishing all sets of categories, makes a study, and its subsequent conclusions and results, more sound. A study which does this, i.e. in which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard or norm, is said to have accuracy.

Advantages of Content Analysis
Content analysis offers several advantages to researchers who consider using it. In particular, content analysis:
looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence gets at the central aspect of social interaction
can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations
can provides valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of texts
allows a closeness to text which can alternate between specific categories and relationships and also statistically analyzes the coded form of the text
can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert systems (since knowledge and rules can both be coded in terms of explicit statements about the relationships among concepts)
is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use


Disadvantages of Content Analysis
Content analysis suffers from several disadvantages, both theoretical and procedural. In particular, content analysis:
can be extremely time consuming
is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain a higher level of interpretation
is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study
is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts
tends too often to simply consist of word counts
often disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things after the text is produced
can be difficult to automate or computerize

Content Analysis: Examples
The Palmquist, Carley and Dale study, a summary of "Applications of Computer-Aided Text Analysis: Analyzing Literary and Non-Literary Texts" (1997) is an example of two studies that have been conducted using both conceptual and relational analysis. The Problematic Text for Content Analysis shows the differences in results obtained by a conceptual and a relational approach to a study.

Reasearch Process

The Research Process
We understand the world by asking questions and searching for answers. Our construction of reality depends on the nature of our inquiry.Until the sixteenth century, human inquiry was primarily based on introspection. The way to know things was to turn inward and use logic to seek the truth. This paradigm had endured for a millennium and was a well-established conceptual framework for understanding the world. The seeker of knowledge was an integral part of the inquiry process.

A profound change occurred during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, Bacon, Newton, and Locke presented new ways of examining nature. Our method of understanding the world came to rely on measurement and quantification. Mathematics replaced introspection as the key to supreme truths. The Scientific Revolution was born.

Objectivity became a critical component of the new scientific method. The investigator was an observer, rather than a participant in the inquiry process. A mechanistic view of the universe evolved. We believed that we could understand the whole by performing an examination of the individual parts. Experimentation and deduction became the tools of the scholar. For two hundred years, the new paradigm slowly evolved to become part of the reality framework of society. The Age of Enlightenment had arrived.

Scientific research methodology was very successful at explaining natural phenomena. It provided a systematic way of knowing. Western philosophers embraced this new structure of inquiry. Eastern philosophy continued to stress the importance of the one seeking knowledge. By the beginning of the twentieth century, a complete schism had occurred. Western and Eastern philosophies were mutually exclusive and incompatible.

Then something remarkable happened. Einstein's proposed that the observer was not separate from the phenomena being studied. Indeed, his theory of relativity actually stressed the role of the observer. Quantum mechanics carried this a step further and stated that the act of observation could change the thing being observed. The researcher was not simply an observer, but in fact, was an integral part of the process. In physics, Western and Eastern philosophies have met. This idea has not been incorporated into the standard social science research model, and today's social science community see themselves as objective observers of the phenomena being studied. However, "it is an established principle of measurement that instruments react with the things they measure." (Spector, 1981, p. 25) The concept of instrument reactivity states that an instrument itself can disturb the thing being measured.

Problem Recognition & Definition
All research begins with a question. Intellectual curiosity is often the foundation for scholarly inquiry. Some questions are not testable. The classic philosophical example is to ask, "How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?" While the question might elicit profound and thoughtful revelations, it clearly cannot be tested with an empirical experiment. Prior to Descartes, this is precisely the kind of question that would engage the minds of learned men. Their answers came from within. The modern scientific method precludes asking questions that cannot be empirically tested. If the angels cannot be observed or detected, the question is considered inappropriate for scholarly research.

A paradigm is maintained as much by the process of formulating questions as it is by the answers to those questions. By excluding certain types of questions, we limit the scope of our thinking. It is interesting to note, however, that modern physicists have began to ask the same kinds of questions posed by the Eastern philosophers. "Does a tree falling in the forest make a sound if nobody is there to hear it?" This seemingly trivial question is at the heart of the observer/observed dichotomy. In fact, quantum mechanics predicts that this kind of question cannot be answered with complete certainty. It is the beginning of a new paradigm.
Defining the goals and objectives of a research project is one of the most important steps in the research process. Clearly stated goals keep a research project focused. The process of goal definition usually begins by writing down the broad and general goals of the study. As the process continues, the goals become more clearly defined and the research issues are narrowed.
Exploratory research (e.g., literature reviews, talking to people, and focus groups) goes hand-in-hand with the goal clarification process. The literature review is especially important because it obviates the need to reinvent the wheel for every new research question. More importantly, it gives researchers the opportunity to build on each others work.

The research question itself can be stated as a hypothesis. A hypothesis is simply the investigator's belief about a problem. Typically, a researcher formulates an opinion during the literature review process. The process of reviewing other scholar's work often clarifies the theoretical issues associated with the research question. It also can help to elucidate the significance of the issues to the research community.

The hypothesis is converted into a null hypothesis in order to make it testable. "The only way to test a hypothesis is to eliminate alternatives of the hypothesis." (Anderson, 1966, p.9) Statistical techniques will enable us to reject a null hypothesis, but they do not provide us with a way to accept a hypothesis. Therefore, all hypothesis testing is indirect.

Creating the Research Design
Defining a research problem provides a format for further investigation. A well-defined problem points to a method of investigation. There is no one best method of research for all situations. Rather, there are a wide variety of techniques for the researcher to choose from. Often, the selection of a technique involves a series of trade-offs. For example, there is often a trade-off between cost and the quality of information obtained. Time constraints sometimes force a trade-off with the overall research design. Budget and time constraints must always be considered as part of the design process (Walonick, 1993).

Many authors have categorized research design as either descriptive or causal. Descriptive studies are meant to answer the questions of who, what, where, when and how. Causal studies are undertaken to determine how one variable affects another. McDaniel and Gates (1991) state that the two characteristics that define causality are temporal sequence and concomitant variation.

The word causal may be a misnomer. The mere existence of a temporal relationship between two variables does not prove or even imply that A causes B. It is never possible to prove causality. At best, we can theorize about causality based on the relationship between two or more variables, however, this is prone to misinterpretation. Personal bias can lead to totally erroneous statements. For example, Blacks often score lower on I.Q. scores than their White counterparts. It would be irresponsible to conclude that ethnicity causes high or low I.Q. scores. In social science research, making false assumptions about causality can delude the researcher into ignoring other (more important) variables.

There are three basic methods of research: 1) survey, 2) observation, and 3) experiment (McDaniel and Gates, 1991). Each method has its advantages and disadvantages.
The survey is the most common method of gathering information in the social sciences. It can be a face-to-face interview, telephone, or mail survey. A personal interview is one of the best methods obtaining personal, detailed, or in-depth information. It usually involves a lengthy questionnaire that the interviewer fills out while asking questions. It allows for extensive probing by the interviewer and gives respondents the ability to elaborate their answers. Telephone interviews are similar to face-to-face interviews. They are more efficient in terms of time and cost, however, they are limited in the amount of in-depth probing that can be accomplished, and the amount of time that can be allocated to the interview. A mail survey is generally the most cost effective interview method. The researcher can obtain opinions, but trying to meaningfully probe opinions is very difficult.

Observation research monitors respondents' actions without directly interacting with them. It has been used for many years by A.C. Nielsen to monitor television viewing habits. Psychologists often use one-way mirrors to study behavior. Social scientists often study societal and group behaviors by simply observing them. The fastest growing form of observation research has been made possible by the bar code scanners at cash registers, where purchasing habits of consumers can now be automatically monitored and summarized.

In an experiment, the investigator changes one or more variables over the course of the research. When all other variables are held constant (except the one being manipulated), changes in the dependent variable can be explained by the change in the independent variable. It is usually very difficult to control all the variables in the environment. Therefore, experiments are generally restricted to laboratory models where the investigator has more control over all the variables.

Sampling
It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in keeping with the objectives of the study.

Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population.Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In nonprobability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The other common form of nonprobability sampling occurs by accident when the researcher inadvertently introduces nonrandomness into the sample selection process. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In nonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown. (McDaniel and Gates, 1991)

Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased. Random sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file.

Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity.

Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select subjects for each stratum until the number of subjects in that stratum is proportional to its frequency in the population.

Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.

Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population.
Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.

Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.

Data Collection
There are very few hard and fast rules to define the task of data collection. Each research project uses a data collection technique appropriate to the particular research methodology. The two primary goals for both quantitative and qualitative studies are to maximize response and maximize accuracy.

When using an outside data collection service, researchers often validate the data collection process by contacting a percentage of the respondents to verify that they were actually interviewed. Data editing and cleaning involves the process of checking for inadvertent errors in the data. This usually entails using a computer to check for out-of-bounds data.
Quantitative studies employ deductive logic, where the researcher starts with a hypothesis, and then collects data to confirm or refute the hypothesis. Qualitative studies use inductive logic, where the researcher first designs a study and then develops a hypothesis or theory to explain the results of the analysis.

Quantitative analysis is generally fast and inexpensive. A wide assortment of statistical techniques are available to the researcher. Computer software is readily available to provide both basic and advanced multivariate analysis. The researcher simply follows the preplanned analysis process, without making subjective decisions about the data. For this reason, quantitative studies are usually easier to execute than qualitative studies.
Qualitative studies nearly always involve in-person interviews, and are therefore very labor intensive and costly. They rely heavily on a researcher's ability to exclude personal biases. The interpretation of qualitative data is often highly subjective, and different researchers can reach different conclusions from the same data. However, the goal of qualitative research is to develop a hypothesis--not to test one. Qualitative studies have merit in that they provide broad, general theories that can be examined in future research.

Data Analysis
Modern computer software has made the analysis of quantitative data a very easy task. It is no longer incumbent on the researcher to know the formulas needed to calculate the desired statistics. However, this does not obviate the need for the researcher to understand the theoretical and conceptual foundations of the statistical techniques. Each statistical technique has its own assumptions and limitations. Considering the ease in which computers can calculate complex statistical problems, the danger is that the researcher might be unaware of the assumptions and limitations in the use and interpretation of a statistic.

Reporting the Results
The most important consideration in preparing any research report is the nature of the audience. The purpose is to communicate information, and therefore, the report should be prepared specifically for the readers of the report. Sometimes the format for the report will be defined for the researcher (e.g., a dissertation), while other times, the researcher will have complete latitude regarding the structure of the report. At a minimum, the report should contain an abstract, problem statement, methods section, results section, discussion of the results, and a list of references (Anderson, 1966).

Validity and Reliability
Validity refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement. Are we measuring what we think we are? "Validity itself is a simple concept, but the determination of the validity of a measure is elusive" (Spector, 1981, p. 14).
Face validity is based solely on the judgment of the researcher. Each question is scrutinized and modified until the researcher is satisfied that it is an accurate measure of the desired construct. The determination of face validity is based on the subjective opinion of the researcher.
Content validity is similar to face validity in that it relies on the judgment of the researcher. However, where face validity only evaluates the individual items on an instrument, content validity goes further in that it attempts to determine if an instrument provides adequate coverage of a topic. Expert opinions, literature searches, and pretest open-ended questions help to establish content validity.

Criterion-related validity can be either predictive or concurrent. When a dependent/independent relationship has been established between two or more variables, criterion-related validity can be assessed. A mathematical model is developed to be able to predict the dependent variable from the independent variable(s). Predictive validity refers to the ability of an independent variable (or group of variables) to predict a future value of the dependent variable. Concurrent validity is concerned with the relationship between two or more variables at the same point in time.

Construct validity refers to the theoretical foundations underlying a particular scale or measurement. It looks at the underlying theories or constructs that explain a phenomena. This is also quite subjective and depends heavily on the understanding, opinions, and biases of the researcher.

Reliability is synonymous with repeatability. A measurement that yields consistent results over time is said to be reliable. When a measurement is prone to random error, it lacks reliability. The reliability of an instrument places an upper limit on its validity (Spector, 1981). A measurement that lacks reliability will necessarily be invalid. There are three basic methods to test reliability : test-retest, equivalent form, and internal consistency.

A test-retest measure of reliability can be obtained by administering the same instrument to the same group of people at two different points in time. The degree to which both administrations are in agreement is a measure of the reliability of the instrument. This technique for assessing reliability suffers two possible drawbacks. First, a person may have changed between the first and second measurement. Second, the initial administration of an instrument might in itself induce a person to answer differently on the second administration.

The second method of determining reliability is called the equivalent-form technique. The researcher creates two different instruments designed to measure identical constructs. The degree of correlation between the instruments is a measure of equivalent-form reliability. The difficulty in using this method is that it may be very difficult (and/or prohibitively expensive) to create a totally equivalent instrument.

The most popular methods of estimating reliability use measures of internal consistency. When an instrument includes a series of questions designed to examine the same construct, the questions can be arbitrarily split into two groups. The correlation between the two subsets of questions is called the split-half reliability. The problem is that this measure of reliability changes depending on how the questions are split. A better statistic, known as Chronbach's alpha (1951), is based on the mean (absolute value) interitem correlation for all possible variable pairs. It provides a conservative estimate of reliability, and generally represents "the lower bound to the reliability of an unweighted scale of items" (Carmines and Zeller, p. 45). For dichotomous nominal data, the KR-20 (Kuder-Richardson, 1937) is used instead of Chronbach's alpha (McDaniel and Gates, 1991).

Variability and Error
Most research is an attempt to understand and explain variability. When a measurement lacks variability, no statistical tests can be (or need be) performed. Variability refers to the dispersion of scores. Ideally, when a researcher finds differences between respondents, they are due to true difference on the variable being measured. However, the combination of systematic and random errors can dilute the accuracy of a measurement. Systematic error is introduced through a constant bias in a measurement. It can usually be traced to a fault in the sampling procedure or in the design of a questionnaire. Random error does not occur in any consistent pattern, and it is not controllable by the researcher.

Summary
Scientific research involves the formulation and testing of one or more hypotheses. A hypothesis cannot be proved directly, so a null hypothesis is established to give the researcher an indirect method of testing a theory. Sampling is necessary when the population is too large, or when the researcher is unable to investigate all members of the target group. Random and systematic sampling are the best methods because they guarantee that each member of the population will have an known non-zero chance of being selected. The mathematical reliability (repeatability) of a measurement, or group of measurements, can be calculated, however, validity can only be implied by the data, and it is not directly verifiable. Social science research is generally an attempt to explain or understand the variability in a group of people.

References
Anderson, B. (1966) The Psychology Experiment: An Introduction to the Scientific Method. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
McDaniel, C. and R. Gates (1991) Contemporary Marketing Research. St. Paul, MN: West.
Carmines, E., and R. Zeller, (1979) Reliability and Validity Assessment. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Spector, P. (1981) Research Design. Beverly Hills: Sage.
Walonick, D. (1993) StatPac Gold IV: Marketing Research and Survey Edition. Minneapolis, MN: StatPac, Inc.

Development journalism

What is the 'development'??
I. Removal of poverty, lessening the disparity between the region and class.
II. Building on technologies and infrastructure.
III. Modernization of society through shedding feudalism.
IV. Gradual achievement of self- economic reliance (localization of manpower).
Development is the measured in the level of improvement of line of the people and strengthening the capacity of nation to deal with situation. It covers the whole complex and interlocking web of economic activity, catalytic forces unleashed by technologies and industrialization, the under current of social changes, the momentum of urbanization and its impact on politics, society and religion.

Purpose of development reporting.
Present is the key to future.
Motivation to people.
Self-involvement to change their life.
Broaden perspective.
Highlights the new changes and trends.

Rules and guidelines for development journalism.
a) If you writing a development story, see that your story is meaningful to the community that your paper serve.
b) Research the story from its pre-development stage to its current status.
c) Give a paper hearing to all those involved in the development project and find out true causes of delay.
d) Mention names, take down complain and point out directly who are responsible.
e) Look for parallel.
f) Quote frequently.
g) Be very careful about facts and figure.
h) Avoid temptation to rewrite.
i) Criticized analytically.

Press Theories

THE THEORIES IN MASS COMMUNICATION

When we think about the process of mass communication, it is important that we consider not only the role mass communication plays in society and the effects the media have on individuals and society (so-called media effects), but also the effects society has on mass communication and the media. Remember that, the term, mass communication refers to a process of spreading messages, texts, and so on to large audiences through the use of the media. There are a number of different arrangements possible relative to the role of the government and the mass communication media.

Four Systems of Mass Communication (or communication theory)

In their classic study Four Theories of the Press, Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm suggest that there are four main systems of mass communication (or were as of 1963, when their book was published):

1. The Soviet Communist system
2. The libertarian system
3. The social responsibility system
4. The authoritarian system

In the following discussion we modify their ideas slightly, because things have changed considerably since 1963. It also should be point out that some scholars argue there are many different systems that could be set up; this list of four is used only as a means of showing some of the more important ones.

First, there is the system that used to be found in the Soviet Union and other Communist countries (and is still found, to a degree, in the People’s Republic of China). This system allowed the Communist Party to operate or control the media and to use them to indoctrinate the public with Communist principles and ideas. The government ran the media and used them to spread what we could call propaganda (Marxist-Leninist ideology), to convince people of the efficiency and legitimacy of the government.

We have to wonder how effective this media control was, given that the people in Communist countries kicked out the Communists as soon as they recognized that the Russian Army would not be invading. This, after 50 years of media indoctrination (another example supporting the theory that media have weak effects).

The Second System, the libertarian (a term with a somewhat different meaning nowadays, when we have a Libertarian Party), allows for so-called free media, in which private corporations are allowed to control channels and operate networks under the supervision of various government agencies. This is the situation found in the United States and in many Western European countries, where government-run networks no longer have a monopoly on the airwaves.

The Third System is also found in the United States and other countries with “free” media, but the focus is on the social responsibility of those who own and control the media of mass communication. In the United States there is a continual battle being waged by those supporting the libertarian view of media (corporations that would like to be completely free to maximize their profits) and those supporting the social responsibility view of media (academics and other who fear that the media are irresponsible and are not being used in the public’s interest).

The fourth group, the authoritarian, is for all intents and purposes a stronger version of the Soviet Communist model, and exists in countries where strong dictators can exercise virtually absolute control of the media; North Korea, the “hermit state” as it is sometimes called, is an example. The spread of new technologies in recent years has made it very difficult for those in power in such countries to maintain control of the media. In many areas of China, for example, viewers can pick up networks from Hong Kong and other free countries, so they can watch news shows that give them much more accurate information about what is going on in the world than their own programs deliver. They can also watch other kinds of programs broadcast from outside China. Some theorists believe that the West German television shows East Germans were able to see were a factor in the ultimate breakdown of authority in East Germany and the reunification of Germany. These programs exposed East Germans to a consumer culture in West Germany that many East Germans (and those in other Soviet Satellites) longed for.

(Berger, A. A, (1995), Essentials of Mass Communication Theory, Sage Publication, Inc. USA)

MEDIA SHOULD PROTECT DEMOCRACY TO PROTECT ITS OWN FREEDOM
A senior journalist and pro-democracy campaigner, HARIHAR BIRAHI is known for his unflinching commitment to the promotion of press freedom in Nepal. Former editor of a popular weekly, Bimarsha, Birahi was also put behind bars even after the restoration of democracy on charges of contempt of court. As the chairman of Press Council of Nepal, he is currently working on to make the fourth state accountable and responsible. He spoke to FREE EXPRESSION at his office on related issues. Excerpts:

What do you think are the main challenges in front of the freedom of press in Nepal?
The Nepalese press has undertaken a long struggle for the freedom of press. The guaranteeing of the press freedom and freedom of expression in the constitution of the kingdom of Nepal, 1990, is also the reflection of that struggle. Now the main challenge is to enhance professionalism in the media sector by exercising that freedom. The social, political and economic environment in the society naturally does have their impact upon the (performance of the) press. As other sectors are still evolving, Nepalese press, too, has to bear different problems. Of course, there has been some negative impact of the wrong tendencies of the society upon the press. So, the press freedom can guarantee the future of the press only when the media sector commits itself to do away with such tendencies.

Over the last few years, incidences of attacks upon the press from the government and rebels have gone on increasing. How do you look at it?
While talking of the government's intervention upon the media the press seems to be afraid of an `imaginary threat.' There have been speculations if the government is turning autocratic. But all the officials have said so far is that the media should not promote violence and help in stopping it. The constitution has prohibited publication of any material that could incite communal violence or jeopardize national security, for example. Our society is becoming so addict to the free press that the government can't impose restrictions now even if it wanted to. So, instead of the government trying to control us, we ourselves should develop certain code of conduct and implement it effectively. The media itself should be aware not to promote violence and not to do any thing that could undermine freedom of the press.

How do you see increasing cases of attacks by a section of civil society against the press?
One of the major reasons for such attacks is that several media persons are involved in activities other than journalism at the same time. This might give rise to a situation of conflict. Similarly, journalists are found behaving as a political activist while covering a meeting or program of political parties. When police takes action to control the crowds, journalists also get injured. As our civil society is still in a learning phase, people tend to use force rather than refuting the published news reports. If the media persons follow code of conduct and work as independent, professional journalists such incidences would go on decreasing.

Could raising the amount of compensation in cases of libel discourage such trends?
It could help to some extent but it could also obstruct the revelation of the truth. For the development of journalism, congenial social environment will be more appropriate rather than formulating stringent laws. We can improve the situation by exerting moral pressure on the journalists who publish biased or misleading news reports. As professionalism in Nepali journalism is yet to develop and media organizations are yet to become institutionalized, such incidences will continue to occur. Of course, the situation has improved a lot over the last few years. With the application of new technologies and millions of rupee investment in this sector, Nepali media sector has undertaken a giant leap forward. Now the question is that of reliability to which all the media people must be well aware.

There are complaints that the Press Council of Nepal, too, is not playing its role more effectively.The main job of the Press Council is to formulate code of conduct for the media and enforce it by motivating the media community. In the Panchayat days, Press Council as only a show piece. Now the situation has changed. We have enforced a joint code of conduct prepared by the Press Council and the Federation of Nepalese Journalist. We have been considering amendment in the existing code and are also monitoring its implementation. There is very big interest toward journalism outside Kathmandu but there is lack of knowledge and information in the society. So, Press Council is organizing interactions among people from different walks of life and has been telling them to approach us if they feel offended by news reports. Now we are receiving more complaints. Press Council is not a body to punish the journalists, but motivate the journalists and make them aware about the norms and moral values of this sector. If certain newspaper doesn't publish rejoinder by the aggrieved party, then we request the media concerned to give them a chance. So far, we are getting cooperation from all sides.

How has been the response of the Press Council and courts toward libel suits?
The number of complaints at the Press Council of Nepal is increasing over the last few years. People are also reaching the courts against the news reports that they feel are damaging. The court verdicts generally seem protective of the newspapers and don't want to punish them. So, the aggrieved party might not be satisfied and even resort to physical abuses against the media or media personnel concerned.

Media personnel are still facing financial and intellectual exploitation at their working place. What would you say?
There may have been exploitation even now but the situation has improved to a great extent. Earlier, those working in the media could not even think of making money out of their newspapers and were required to invest whatever they could. Now, journalists especially with the daily newspapers and electronic media are drawing good salaries. But as the Working Journalists Regulation is yet to be implemented there still is an environment of insecurity for the media personnel. In terms of benefits, those working in private media are getting more than their counterparts in the official media.

It is widely believed that the Nepali press may have to work under great pressure as the conflict between the government and Maoist rebels seems to getting intensified?
Of course, you are right. Whenever violation erupts it will have impact not only on local people and administration media people are also likely to suffer. In several districts, people can't read newspapers of their choice. Newspapers don't get readers. Journalists can't move freely in several districts due to threats to their safety. Rebels have been using ambushes in their strongholds with a view to trap the policemen. But ordinary people and even journalists could fall victims to such ambushes. Due to deteriorating law and order situation, businesses and industries are getting closed. In the absence of advertisement, no newspapers can survive. As schools are getting closed and educated people are leaving their villages the number of readers is decreasing. Restoration of peace and institutionalization of democracy is not only a political issue. If democracy is lost, media personnel would be the first victims. So, media personnel should work toward the protection of democracy to protect their own freedom.

The Press often looks hostile toward the establishment. Is it justified?
Journalism worldwide is generally anti-establishment in nature. It is the job of the media to give voice to the voiceless. In Nepal, the government is still running some print and electronic media. But private newspapers have more readership than the official media. They are giving due coverage to policy matters and are criticizing the government's activities generally on the merit basis. The government should take the media into confidence. The media too should not treat the government as an opponent or competitor.

What is the position of the proposed right to information bill?
The draft right to information bill is in its final stage, which is a matter of pleasure to all of us. Of course, this bill should have been introduced much earlier but. A number of media organizations including the Press Council and FNJ have advocated with the government in favor of such a bill. I am optimistic that the bill may be introduced in the upcoming budget session of the parliament. Though our constitution guarantees right to information to all the citizens it could not be practiced in the absence of a law. Now it's up to the media community to better utilize it. At the same time, all of us are enjoying freedom of expression, which we should use in a judicious way.

Courtesy: Harihar Birahi

Importance of information industries
Information industries are considered important for several distinctive reasons. Even among the experts who think information industries are important, disagreements may exist regarding which reason to accept and which to reject.

First, information industries are a rapidly growing part of economy. The demand for information goods and services from consumers is increasing. In case of consumers, media including music and motion picture, personal computers, video game-related industries, are among the information industries. In case of businesses, information industries include computer programming, system design, so-called FIRE (finance, insurance, and real estate) industries, telecommunications, and others. When demand for these industries are growing nationally or internationally, that creates an opportunity for an urban, regional, or national economy to grow rapidly by specializing on these sectors.

Second, information industries are considered to boost innovation and productivity of other industries. An economy with a strong information industry might be a more competitive one than others, other factors being equal.

Third, some believe that the effect of the changing economic structure (or composition of industries within an economy) is related to the broader social change. That is, as information becomes the central part of our economic activities, the society as well is becoming an "information society." For example, some observes the increased role of mass media, digital technologies, and other mediated information in our daily life, leisure activities, social life, work, politics, education, art, and many other aspects of society.

information industries

Broadcasting industries
Keen competition is expected for many jobs, particularly in large metropolitan areas, because of the large number of jobseekers attracted by the glamour of this industry.
Job prospects will be best for applicants with a college degree in broadcasting or a related field, and relevant experience, such as work at college radio and television stations or internships at professional stations.
In this highly competitive industry, broadcasters are less willing to provide on-the-job training, and instead seek candidates who can perform the job immediately.
Many entry-level positions are at smaller broadcast stations; consequently, workers often must change employers, and sometimes relocate, in order to advance.
The broadcasting industry consists of radio and television stations and networks that create content or acquire the right to broadcast taped television and radio programs. Networks transmit their signals from broadcasting studios via satellite signals to local stations or cable distributors
Radio and television stations and networks broadcast a variety of programs, such as national and local news, talk shows, music programs, movies, other entertainment, and advertisements. Stations produce some of these programs, most notably news programs, in their own studios; however, much of the programming is produced outside the broadcasting industryActors, producers, and directors
Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers
Announcers
Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators
News analysts, reporters, and correspondents
Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors
Writers and editors

Internet service providers, data processing
Projected employment growth varies by industry sector, but all segments should grow faster than the economy as a whole.
About a third of all jobs are in computer occupations; another third are in office and administrative support occupations.
About 2 out of 5 jobs are in California, Texas, Florida, Virginia, and New York.
The ability to quickly transmit information over long distances has become an important part of modern life. The Internet has changed the way people find and use information to communicate, work, shop, learn, and live. Internet service providers, Web search portals, and data processing services provide the information backbone of the Internet and World Wide Web. They connect people with information and relay information from people.
Internet service providers (ISPs) directly connect people, businesses, and organizations to the Internet by routing data being sent and received to the desired location. Unlike individual users of the Internet, ISPs must develop and maintain the physical, technical, and contractual connections and agreements with other ISPs to enable the transmission of data. There is no single connection point for the Internet, so ISPs typically need many bilateral and multilateral peering agreements to exchange data through peering points, which are physical connections between the computer equipment of service providers for the purpose of allowing other service providers access to their network of connections. These points-of-presence between ISPs provide a nearly unlimited number of potential connection pathways between data and end users.
The Internet is constantly expanding and evolving, and so are the industries associated with it. Due to constantly changing technology and the relatively low additional cost of most new services, companies are frequently upgrading their existing services and offering new ones to attract or retain customers.
Computer and information systems managers
Computer programmers
Computer software engineers
Computer support specialists and systems administrators
Computer systems analysts
Customer service representatives
Data entry and information processing workers
Office clerks, general
Motion pictures and video industries
Keen competition is expected for the more glamorous jobs—writers, actors, producers, and directors—but better job prospects are expected for multimedia artists and animators, film and video editors, and others skilled in digital filming and computer generated imaging.
Although many films are shot on location, employment is centered in several major cities, particularly New York and Los Angeles.
Many workers have formal training, but experience, talent, creativity, and professionalism are the factors that are most important in getting many jobs in this industry.
The industry is dominated by several large studios, based mostly in Hollywood. However, with the increasing popularity and worldwide availability of cable television, digital video recorders, computer graphics and editing software, and the Internet, many small and medium-sized independent filmmaking companies have sprung up to fill the growing demand. In addition to producing feature films and filmed television programs, the industry produces made-for-television movies, music videos, and commercials
Some motion picture and video companies produce films for limited, or specialized, audiences. Among these films are documentaries, which use film clips and interviews to chronicle actual events with real people, and educational films ranging from “do-it-yourself” projects to exercise films.
Making a movie can be a difficult, yet rewarding, experience. However, it is also a very risky one
Digital technology also makes it possible to distribute movies to theaters through the use of satellites or fiber-optic cable, although relatively few theaters are capable of receiving them in that manner right now. In the future, however, more theaters will be capable of receiving films digitally and the costly process of producing and distributing bulky films will be sharply reduced.
Actors, producers, and directors
Artists and related workers
Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators
Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors
Writers and editors

Publishing information
Strong communication skills and the ability to meet tight deadlines are crucial for many jobs in this industry.
Mergers and computerization will make firms more productive and limit employment growth
Writers and editors face keen competition for jobs as this industry attracts a large number of applicants, especially at nationally known publications.
Technological advances will result in a decline in employment of some workers, such as prepress technicians.
The publishing industry produces a variety of publications, including magazines, books, newspapers, and directories. It also produces greeting cards, data bases, calendars, and other published material, excluding software. Although mostly producing printed materials, the publishing industry is increasingly producing its material in other formats, such as audio, CD-ROM, or other electronic media.
Newspapers employ the largest number of workers in the publishing industry. With a staff of reporters and correspondents, newspapers report on events taking place locally and around the world.
Book publishing is also dominated by a few very large companies, primarily based in New York City. However, some mid-size and small publishers across the country are thriving, particularly those that specialize in certain subjects. Textbooks and technical, scientific, and professional books provide nearly half of the revenues of the book publishing industry.
Magazine, or periodical, publishers run the gamut from small one- or two-person shops to large media conglomerates that may publish dozens of magazines
Directory publishers produce collections of residential and business customers covering a specific regional area. Directories are designed for the purpose of assisting calling parties in locating correct telephone numbers, as well as, providing a means of locating businesses and their products
Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers
Advertising sales agents
Artists and related workers
News analysts, reporters, and correspondents
Photographers
Prepress technicians and workers
Printing machine operators
Writers and editors

software publishing industry
Employment is projected to increase 68 percent between 2004 and 2014, ranking software publishers as the third fastest growing industry in the economy.
Computer specialists account for 52 percent of all workers.
Job opportunities will be excellent for most workers; professional workers enjoy the best prospects, reflecting continuing demand for higher level skills needed to keep up with changes in technology.
All organizations today rely on computer and information technology to conduct business and operate more efficiently. Computer software is needed to run and protect computer systems and networks. Some 10,000 establishments are engaged primarily in computer software publishing or publishing and reproduction. Software publishing establishments carry out the functions necessary for producing and distributing computer software, such as designing, providing documentation, assisting in installation, and providing support services to software purchasers
Software publishing establishments that design and publish prepackaged software may develop operating system software as well as word processing and spreadsheet packages, games and graphics packages, data storage software, and Internet-related software tools such as search engines and Web browsers—the software that permits browsing, retrieval, and viewing of content from the Internet
Software is often divided into two main categories—applications software and systems software
Electronic business (e-business) is any process that a business organization conducts over a computer network. Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is that part of e-business that involves the buying and selling of goods and services.
· Computer and information systems managers
· Computer programmers
· Computer scientists and database administrators
· Computer software engineers
· Computer support specialists and systems administrators
· Computer systems analysts



Telecommunication industries
Telecommunications includes voice, video, and Internet communications services.
Employment will decline because of technological advances and consolidation.
With rapid technological changes in telecommunications, those with up-to-date technical skills will have the best job opportunities.
Average earnings in telecommunications greatly exceed average earnings throughout private industry.
The telecommunications industry is at the forefront of the information age—delivering voice, data, graphics and video at ever increasing speeds and in an increasing number of ways
Wireless telecommunications carriers, many of which are subsidiaries of the wired carriers, transmit voice, graphics, data, and Internet access through the transmission of signals over networks of radio towers.
Communications equipment operators
Customer service representatives
Electrical and electronics engineers, except computer
Line installers and repairers
Office clerks, general
Radio and telecommunications equipment installers and repairers

Functions of the Mass Media:
Though there are two main functions of mass communication, which are overt and latent functions of communication, six specific functions of the mass media could be identified here. These are:1.Surveiance of the environment. This is the collection and distribution of information within and outside a particular environment. The information flow is necessary for unity and coherence if we live in the society of collectivity;

2. Correlation of parts of the society: This includes the interpretation of the information, the prescription of conduct and, the comment on social value;

3. Transmission of social heritage: By communicating information through the mass media we are transmitting social and cultural values, which aim at sustaining the society;

4. Educating the masses: Education on the policies of governments and on the rights and responsibilities could be carried out through the mass media.

5. Entertainment function. The mass media also entertain the public by providing emotional relaxation, intrinsic and cultural enjoyment (i.e. provision of momentary escape from problems) and killing boredom; and

6. Mobilization function: This function of the mass media is very important to developing communities everywhere. It seeks to bring the people together and helps to advance national development.It could be seen from the foregoing functions that the mass media provide information and education, personal identity, entertainment and most importantly integration and social interaction by giving insight into the circumstances of others as well as by helping with the development of social empathy

Role of Journalist

What is the role of a Journalist?
"I think a journalist should be forthright. Both the editors and journalist should work together to make sure the public interest is served and not assist government by getting government's agenda involved."-Dr. Clint Wilson, communications professor."I see myself as a black person first and a journalist later. It takes courage for a journalist to go and get the true story of people but if as a journalist you see an imbalance, it's your duty to give the story that will balance it."-Alan King, senior print journalism major."... to serve the readers and use the watchdog function, making sure that those who are accountable are really accountable to the public."- Ruby Bailey, journalism professor."... to seek the truth in an accurate fashion, as well as speak for African-Americans who are unable to speak for themselves,"- Michael Cottman, journalism professor."... to get the current information to the masses, getting the truth out to the people is essential. If not, then you are considered a fictional writer."- Arthur Walcott-Ceesay, senior radio-television-film major."... to cover accurate news and to inform the people rather than give opinions."- Ebony Jackson, sophomore public relations major."... to effectively inform the public of daily ongoings in today's society without embellishing or injecting their opinions."- K. Karizma Wilson, sophomore public relations major.
The role of mass media
Ø To serve the society
(On different subject matter: environment, health, national & int'l issues)
Ø Working to protect democracy crisis
Ø In distribution of power (decentralization)
Ø To build democratic society
Ø Mass media in parenting education
Ø Role of agenda setting
(The power of the news media to set a nation's agenda, to focus public attention on different key issues. Walter Lippman: "Public Opinion"1992, quoted 'the world outside and the pictures in our head'. The public agenda-the focus of public attention, is commonly accessed by public opinion polls that ask some variations of the long-standing question, what is the most important problem facing this country today?)
Ø To tell the rights and duties
Ø Culture of peace and non-violence perspective

Media Research

Research in the Print media
Methodologies used to study the print media are similar to those used in most areas of research; academic and commercial research organizations often use content analysis, experiment, focus group, and surveys, among other procedures, to study newspapers and magazines. Print media research; however, tends to be more narrowly focused and more oriented toward practical application.

Background
Magazines and newspapers were one of the first subjects of mass media research. The initial interest in such research came from colleges and universities.

In 1924-the Association of Americam Schools and Departments of Journalism first published the Journalsim bulletin. The first issue contained an article byWilliam Bleyer entitiled "Research Problems and Newspaper Analysis," which presented a list of possible research topics in journalism. Among them were the effects of form and typogragphy on the ease and rapidity of newspaper reading, the effects of newspaper content on circulation. Bleyer's article was remarkably accurate in predicting the types of studies that would characterize newspapers and magazine research in coming years.
Much of early print media research was qualitative.

The first volume of Journalism Quarterly, founded in 1928 to succeed the Journalism Bulletin, contains article on press law, history, international comparisons, and ethics.

March 1930 surveyed the research interests of those currently working in the newspaper and magazine field and found the most prevalent type of study to be the survey of reader interest in newspaper content.

As the techniques of quantitative research became more widely known and adopted, newspaper and magazine research became more empirical.
Wilbur Schramm (1957) first recognized this trend in article in Public Opnion Quarterly that reviewed 20 years of research as reported in Journalism Quarterly. Schramm found that only 10% of the 101 articles published between 1937 and 1941 concerned quantitative analyses; by 1952-1956, however, nearly half the 143 articles published were quantitative, a fivefold increase in only 15 years. The reasons for this trend, according to schramm, were the growing availability of basic data, the development of more sophisticated research tools, and the increase in institutional support for research.

By 1960 newspapers and magazines were competing with television as well as radio for audience attention and advertiser investment.

Some of research agencies are:
-Newspaper Advertising Bureau, 1960, began conducting studies on all aspects of the press and its audience. In the 1970s, it founded the News Research Center, which reports the results of research to editors.
-In 1976 the Newspaper Readership Project was instituted to study the problems of declining circulation and sagging readership.
-In 1977 the Newspaper Research Conucil (NRC), a sub group of the Newspaper Advertising Bureau, was incorporated with 75 members.
-In 1992 the Newspaper Advertising Bureau merged with the American Newspaper Publishers Association to create the Newspaper Association of America (NAA). The NAA continued the efforts of the number of studies that looked at such topics as attracting younger readers and how to use advertising to encourage newspaper reading.

Research touches nearly every corner of the publishing industry: advertising, marketing, circulation, readership, and news-editorial. Print media research is conducted by commercial research firms, in-house research organizations, professional assocations, and colleges. Moreover, print media research is likely to continue its growth. .

Types of Pring Media Research
Newspaper and magazine researchers conduct six basic types of studies: readership, circulation, management, typography/makeup, readability, and online media use. Most of their research focuses on readership; studies of circulation and management rank next.

Studies about online media examine two main topics: a) the potential competition between internet news site and traditional newspapers and b) the relationship between a newspaper's web version and its print version. Only a few studies hae been conducted of typography/makeup and readability.

1. Readership Research
Many readership studies were done in the United States in the years immediately precding and following World War II. The George Gallup organizations was a pioneer in developing the methodology of these studies. A comprehensive study of newspaper readership was undertaken by the American Newspaper Publishers Association (ANPA), whose Contunuing Studies of Newspapers involved more than 50,000 interviews with readers of 130 daily newspapers between 1939 and 1950.

Readership research became important to management during the 1960s and 1970s, as circulation rates in metropolitan areas began to level off or decline. Concerned with holdings the interests of their readers, editors and publishers began to depend on surveys for the detailed audience information they needed to shape the content of a publicaton. The uncertain economy at the beginning of the new century and increasing competition from traditional and online media have made readership research even more important today.

Research into newspaper readership is composed primarily of five types of studies: reader profiles, item selection studies, reader-nonreader studies, uses and gratificationl studies, and editor-reader comparisons.


Reader Profiles: A reader profile provides a demographic summary of the reradersof a particular publication. It depicts the income collection as well as these data can be used to focus the content of the publication, prepare advertising promotions, and increase subscriptions.
Because theer may be significant differences in the nature and extent of newspaper reading among individuals who have the same demographic characteristics, researchers recently have turned to psychographic and lifestyle segmentation sutdies to construct reader profiles.
Psychographic studies usually ask readers to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with a large number of attitudinal statements. Subsequently, patterns of response are analyzed to see how they correlate or cluster together.
Lifestyle segmentation research takes a similar approach. Respondents are asked a battery of questions concerning their activities, hobbies, interests, and attitudes. N. Davis (2001) describes newspaper industry research that segmented readers on the basis of how people manipulated time. The research identified three groups of readers: routinized, relaxed, and harried.
Both psychographic and lifestyle segmentation studies are designed to provide management with additional insights about editorial aims, target audiences, and circulation goals. In addition, they give advertisers a multidimensional portrait of the publications's readers.

Item-Selection Studies: A second type of newspaper readership study, the item-selection study, is used to determine who reads specific parts of the paper.
The readership of a particular item is usually measured by means of aided recal, whereby the inerviewer shows a copy of the paper to the respondent to find out which stories the respondent remebers.
Stamm, Jackson, and Jacoubovitch (1980) suggested a more detailed method of item selection analysis, which they called a tracking study. It identified which parts of an article they had read. (headline, text, photo, graphic, cutline etc.) The readership of items or categories is then related to certain audience demographic and psycographic characteristic.
Reader-Nonreader studies: The third type of newspaper readership research is called the reader-nonreader study. This type of study can be conducted via personal, telephone, or mail interviews with minor modifications. It is difficult, howver, to establish an operational definition for the term non-reader.
In some studies, a nonreader is determined by a "no" anser to the question "Do you generally read a newspaper?" Others have used the more specific question "Have you read a newspaper yesterday or today?" Repondents are asked, "How often do you read a daily paper?" and they are given five choices of response: 'very often', 'often', 'sometimes', 'seldom' and 'never'. Obviously, the form of the question has an impact on how many people are classified as nonreaders.
Once the nonreaders have been identified, researchers typically attempts to describe them by means of traditional demographic variables. Sobal and Jackson-Beek (1981) reported that nonreaders tend to be older, to have less education and lower incomes, and to have more often been widowed or divorced than readers.
Chaffee and Choe (1981) found that changes in marita status, residence, and employment had an impacht on newspaper readership. whereas, Cobb Walgren (1990) focused on why teenagers do not read the newspaper. She found that both teenagers' home environment and their image of the newspaper were important in determining why teens do not read newpapers. Nonreader teens perceived that reading the paer took too much time and effort, and they were more likely to gane parents who also did not read newpapers.
Uses and Gratifications studies: It is used to study all media content. for newspaper it can determine the motives that lead to newspaper reading and the personal and psychological rewards that result from it. The methodology of the uses and grarifications study is straightforward: Respondents are given a list of possible uses and gratifications and are asked whether any of these are the motives behind their reading.
Here is a list of some things people have said about why they read the
newspaper.
I. How much do you agree or disagree with each statement?
II. I read the newspaper because it is entertaining.
III. I read the newspaper because I want to kill time.
IV. I read the newspaper to keep up to date with whats' going on around me.
V. I read the newspaper to relax and to relieve tension.
VI. I read the newspaper so I can find out what other people are saying about things that are important to me.


Editor-Reader comparison: a group of editors is questioned about a certain topic, and their answers are compared to those of their readers to see whether there is any correspondence between the two groups. As sender and receiver, in particular, has different choice to select the news items. Basically, editor ethically controlled by the social responsibility where readers have no force to follow the editor's perception.

In a related study, Bogart(1989) gave readers an opportunity to design their own newspaper. Interviewers persented a sample of readers with 34 subjects and asked how much space they would give to each in a paper tailor-made to their own interest. Major categories of news were omitted from the listings because they were topics over which editors have little control. When the results were tabulated, the contents of a sample of newspapers were analyzed to see whether the space allocations made by editors matched the public's preferences. The resulting data indicated that readers wanted more of certain content than they were getting and that they were getting more of some topics tha they desired .
Magazine Redership Research. M
Magazine readership surveys are fundamentally similar to those conducted for newspapers but tend to differ in the particulars. Some magazine research is done by personal interview ≤ respondents are shown a copy of the magazine under study and asked to rate each article on a four-point scale ( æread all,Æ æread most,Æ æread some,Æ or ædidn’t read ). The mail survery technique, also frequently used, involves sending a second copy of the magazine to a subscriber shortly after the regular copy has been mailed, with instructions on how to mark the survey copy. for example, the respondents might be instructed to mark with a check the articles they scanned, to draw an X through articles read in their entirety, and to underline titles of articles that were only partly read. Laitin (1997) presents a basic outline of the methods used to survey magazine subscribers.
Many magazines maintain reader panels of 25 to 30 people who are selected to participate for a predetermind period. All feature articles that appear in each issue of the magazine are sent to thfse panel members, who rate each article on a number of scales, including interest, ease of reading, and usefulness. Over time, a set of guidelines for evaluating the success of an article is drawn up, and future articles can be measured aganist that standard. The primary advantage of this form of panel survey is that it can provide information about audience reactions at a modest cost . Other publications might use surveys that are included with the magazine itself . The McGraw – Hill magazine group spends approximately S. 250,000 a year on readership research.

Circulation Research M The term circulation research is applied to two different forms of newspaper and magazine study. The first type of circulation research uses a particular group of readers as its unit of analysis. It attempts to measure circulation in terms of the overall characteristics of a particular market—for example, to determine the proportion of households in a given market that are reached by a particular newspapers or the circulation pattern of a magazine among certain demographic groups or in specific geographic areas. Four studies in the 1990s examined the impact of content variables on circulation. Lacy and Fico (1991) demonstrated that measures of the content quality of a newspaper were positively related to circulation figures.

Another trend in circulation research is the identification of other market level or market structure variables that have an impact on circulation.

Economic influence have also been examined. Blankenburh and Friedn (1994) discovered that circulation figures were not related to the percentage of a newspaper's budget that was spent on news-edotorial expenses, nor was there a relationship between money spent on promotion and circulation. There was, however, an influence on newspaper price; papers that cost more tended to lose circulation.

Seamon (2000) looked at several newspaper delivery variables and concluded that the age of the carrier was not a factor in missed or late delivery.

Newspaper Management Research
The growing research area in the last two decades has been newspaper management practices. This growth was due to three factors. First, newspaper companies expanded their holdings, which created a more complicated management structure. Second, media competition became more intense. Newspapers with efficient management techniques had a greater advantage in the new competitive environment. Third, the newspaper industry became more labor-intensive. Skileed and experienced personnel form the backbone of a successful newspaper. More and more managers turned to research to determine how to keep employees satisfied and productive.

The techniques used to study newpaper management are the same as those used to study any business activity: surveys, case studies, descriptive content analysis, and mathematical models.

The main topics that have attracted the most research attention in the last 5 years are goal setting by management, organizational structure, employe job satisfaction, and effects of competition and ownership on newspaper content and quality.
for more.............follow the text bood for example.

Typography and Makeup Reasearch
Print media research measures the effects of news design elements specifically typeface and page makeup on readership, reader preferences, and comprehension. By means of this, approach, researchers have tested the effects of different typography and madeup elements, including amount of white space, presence of paragraph headlines, size and style of type, variations in column width, and use of vertical or horizontal page makeup.

The experimental method is used most often in typography and makeup studies. Subjects are typically assigned to one or more treatment groups, exposed to an experimental stimulus, and asked to rate what they have seen according to a series of dependent variable measures.

Readability research
simply defined, redability is the sum total of all the elements and their interactions that affect the success of a piece of printed material.
success is measured by the extent to which readers understand the , are able to read it at formula to conduct the readability reasearch: Reading ease formula, Fog index, SMOG grading, Colze procedure etc.

SMOG Grading
McLaughlin (1969) prposed a third readability index called SMOG Grading. The SMOG Grading is quick and easy to calculate: the researcher merely selects 10 consecutive sentences near the begining of the text, 10 from the middle, and 10 from the end, and then counts every word of three or more syllables and takes the square root of the total.
the number thus obtained represents the reading grade that a person must have reachedf to understand the text. McLaughlin's index can be calculated quickly using a small, easily measured sample. Although the procedure is related to that for the Fog index, it appears that the SMOG grader is generally lower.

Cloze procedure (W. Taylor) 1953
Taylor developed yet another method for measuring readability called the Cloze procedure. this technique described above in that it does not require an actual count of words or syllables. instead, the researcher chooses a passage of about 250-300 words, deletes every fifth word from a raddom strarting point and replaces it with a blank. the reseacher then gives the passage to subjects and asks them to fill the blanks with what they think ae the correct words; he or she then counts the number of times the blanks are replaced with the correct words. the number of correct words or the percentage of correct replacement constitutres the readability score for that passage.
Nestvold (1972) found that Cloze procedure scores were highly correlated with reader's own eveluations of content difficulty. The Cloze procedure was also found to be a better predictor of evaluations tha nexeral other common readability tests.


Print Media Research and the Internet
Almost every newspapers were publishing both traditonal print and online versions. the total number of magazines/newspaper online is harder to pin down.
Since the online newspaper and magazine is a relatively recent phenomenon, most of the research is still at a rather basic level.

One group of studies is concerned with describing what types of newspapers have websites, how they are trying to made a profit, and how their online version relates to the print version.

For examle, Peng, Tham, and Hao (1999) conducted a survey of more than 60 editors of online papers and performed a content analysis of the sites of 80 papers. They found that almost all types of papers had online versions and that the two main reasons for starting the digital version were to gain more readers and to increase revenues.

Bartlet (2001) reports data that seem to suggest that publishers have a valid concern. Survey results indicated that those with greater experience and success, typically younger individuals, rely more on the Internet and less on the newspaper for their news.

SUMMARY
Research in the print media encompassed readership studies, circulation studies, management studies, typography and makeup studies, and readability studies. Readership research is the most extensive area; it serves to determine who reads a publication, what item are read, and what gratifications the readers get from their choices. Circulation studies examine the penetration levels of newspapers and magazines in various markets as well as various aspects of the delivery and pricing systems. Management studies look at goal setting and at job satisfaction. Typorgraphy and Makeup are studied to determine the impact of different newspaper and magazine design elements on readership and item preferences. Readability studies investigate the textual elements that affect comprehension of a message. A more recent research area examines the online versions of print media.

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