Internet research is the practice of using the Internet, especially the World Wide Web, for research. To the extent that the Internet is widely and readily accessible to hundreds of millions of people in many parts of the world, it can provide practically instant information on most topics, and is having a profound impact on the way in which ideas are formed and knowledge is creat4ed.
Research is a broad term. Here, it is used to mean "looking something up (on the Web)". It includes any activity where a topic is identified, and an effort is made to actively gather information for the purpose of furthering understanding. Common applications of Internet research include personal research on a particular subject (something mentioned on the news, a health problem, etc), students doing research for academic projects and papers, and journalists and other writers researching stories. It should be distinguished from scientific research - research following a defined and rigorous process - carried out on the Internet; from straightforward finding of specific info, like locating a name or phone number; and from research about the Internet.
Compared to the Internet, print physically limits access to information. A book has to be identified, and then actually obtained. On the Net, the Web can be searched, and typically hundreds or thousands of pages can be found with some relation to the topic, within seconds. In addition, email (including mailing lists), online discussion forums (aka message boards, BBS's), and other personal communication facilities (instant messaging, IRC, newsgroups, etc) can provide direct access to experts and other individuals with relevant interests and knowledge. However, difficulties persist in verifying a writer's credentials, and therefore the accuracy or pertinence of the information obtained.
Further difficulties in internet research center around search tool bias and whether the searcher has sufficient skill to draw meaningful results from the abundance of material typically available. The first resources retrieved may not be the most suitable resources to answer a particular question. For example, prominence is often a factor used in structuring internet search results but prominent information often gives a biased view of controversial issues.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet Research
What are the advantages of doing internet research?
Ability to obtain a large sample, which increases statistical power
Ability to obtain a more diverse sample than in traditional university-based research
Prevents experimenter demand effects (with no interaction with the experimenter, no "experimenter expectancy" effect)
Data is automatically coded so no data entry errors
Can sample individuals beyond your schools subject pool
Reduced cost of conducting research
What are the disadvantages of doing internet research? (and tips to overcome them)
Some subjects may try to participant in the same study more than once
1. To overcome this problem, you can ask for the email addresses of each participant, and then look for duplicates.
2. Since nowadays its easy for people to create multiple email addresses, you can also ask for name and/or address of each subject. Sometimes researchers will have a "lottery" as incentive to participate (e.g., $100 lottery prize for each 400 participants), so asking for name/address is necessary to award the lottery check.
3. You can also collect the IP address of each participant and look for duplicates. One issue here is that sometimes DSL providers give the same IP address to multiple people.
Some subjects may drop out of the study before finishing
1. In traditional laboratory-based research its unusual for a subject to walk out of a study, but online a subject can get distracted or simply lose interest and end the study. Sometimes researchers will have a "lottery" as incentive to have the subject participate in the study, but with any type of monetary incentive IRB's typically require a statement in the consent form saying something to the effect of "you may discontinue participation at any time without any consequences or losing your entry in the lottery."
2. Since a certain number of online subjects wont finish the study, you can overcollect the number of subjects you think you need to offset the number of subjects who dont finish the study, usually around 10-20%.
Some subjects may stop the study and then continue minutes/hours later
1. The problem here is that some studies involve manipulations which may lose power if there is a time lag between the manipulation and measures in the study. One advantage of online studies is that you can record how long the subject is taking part in the study, so you can identify the average length of time of your study, and also identify those subjects who take an extraordinary long amount of time to finish the study.
Some subjects may rush through the study
1. Since you can record how long each subject is participating in the study, you can identify those subjects who may have rushed through the study.
How do I get subjects for my online study?
1. There is no single answer to this question and you may have to try a number of things before you find something that works for your study, depending on the subject matter and incentives you are offering. See How to recruit subjects online? for an ongoing discussion of subject recruitment.
Friday, May 08, 2009
Basic Vs. Applied Research
The Purpose of Research: Basic vs. Applied
Basic research is sometimes referred to as theoretical, academic, or scholarly research. It is most often conducted in college or university settings by professors and/ or graduate students. Much of the funding for this kend of research comes from government agencies, foundations, or the schools themselves either directly through grants to cover their costs or indirectly by providing salaries and work space. Because its methods, data, and findings are generally public, basic research contributes immeasurably to the advancement of knowledge.
The goal of basic research is to create, test, and improve theory. However, it would be a mistake to think that all, or perhaps even most, social scientists devote their research time to the creation and testing of theory. Some do research simply to document ‘how things are,’ secure in the knowledge that what seems obvious today will be less obvious in 10, 20, or 100 years.
The goal of Applied Research to provide solutions to real-world problems. Theory building and testing is not its goal, but findings from; purely applied research often provides the raw stuff from which researchers can develop theories. Although pragmatic concerns are rarely the driving force behing basic research, basic research has practical applications. Much applied research is ‘theory using.” Applied researchers often design their studies to incorporate questions, hypotheses, or measurement derived from more theoretical work. They also turn to theory to help them explain their findings and make them more meaningful by fitting them into a larger body of work.
Therefore, applied research is neither totally atheoretical nor bereft of value to the basic researcher. Basic research is not simply an exercise in ‘ivory tower’ theorizing bereft or real-world benefits. The two kinds of research complement each other, working together to enhance understanding.
Basic research is sometimes referred to as theoretical, academic, or scholarly research. It is most often conducted in college or university settings by professors and/ or graduate students. Much of the funding for this kend of research comes from government agencies, foundations, or the schools themselves either directly through grants to cover their costs or indirectly by providing salaries and work space. Because its methods, data, and findings are generally public, basic research contributes immeasurably to the advancement of knowledge.
The goal of basic research is to create, test, and improve theory. However, it would be a mistake to think that all, or perhaps even most, social scientists devote their research time to the creation and testing of theory. Some do research simply to document ‘how things are,’ secure in the knowledge that what seems obvious today will be less obvious in 10, 20, or 100 years.
The goal of Applied Research to provide solutions to real-world problems. Theory building and testing is not its goal, but findings from; purely applied research often provides the raw stuff from which researchers can develop theories. Although pragmatic concerns are rarely the driving force behing basic research, basic research has practical applications. Much applied research is ‘theory using.” Applied researchers often design their studies to incorporate questions, hypotheses, or measurement derived from more theoretical work. They also turn to theory to help them explain their findings and make them more meaningful by fitting them into a larger body of work.
Therefore, applied research is neither totally atheoretical nor bereft of value to the basic researcher. Basic research is not simply an exercise in ‘ivory tower’ theorizing bereft or real-world benefits. The two kinds of research complement each other, working together to enhance understanding.
Friday, April 17, 2009
History of Nepali Press
Nepali Media: A Brief History
Although the institutional history of Nepali press could be traced back to 1851 when Rana Prime Minister Jung Bahadur Rana installed a printing press (the Giddhe Press), or in 1901 when the state-owned newspaper, the Gorkhapatra, was launched, its practical history begins in the 1950s, after the fall of Ranas, when several pioneering journalists took to publishing newspapers in a transitional democracy. Thirty years after the royal takeover of 1960 represented a repressive press system. During this time, press enjoyed limited rights and lobbied, to some extent, for a multiparty democracy that could guarantee press freedom. After the Restoration of democracy in 1990 a drastic change came in the Nepali Media particularly in the private sector. Liberal provision and guarantee of press freedom enshrined in the constitution opened up avenues for the private sector to involve on media sector. The 1990's democracy yielded by the People's Movement also established rights and freedom of the press. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal (1990) formally guaranteed the freedom of press and publication.
The 1990 Constitution of Nepal says-No news/articles shall be censored, provided that nothing shall prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignty and integrity of the Kingdom, or which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities; or on any act of sedition, defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or an any act which may be contrary to decent public behavior or morality. No press shall be closed or seized for printing any news item, article or other reading material. The registration of newspaper or periodicals shall not be cancelled merely for publishing any news item, article or other reading material (Article 13). And, according to Article 16 of the Constitution, every citizen shall have the right to demand and receive information on any matter of public importance: provided that nothing in this Article shall compel any person to provide information on any matter about which secrecy is to be maintained by law.
During Maoist Insurgency: and King's Direct Rule:Unfortunately, however, journalism and civil liberties were subjected to victim not only to the government machinery, but also to the violent Maoist insurgency forces in the recent years.During the first State of Emergency (26 Nov 2001-29 Aug 2002), eight journalists were assassinated, six of them by the security forces and two by the rebels. And more than 150 were arrested and tortured in various ways. Nepali journalism suffered a lot while it waged a massive struggle against the King's direct rule. The Nepali press suffered worst form of suppression from the state and also did not remain aloof from the threats, obstructions and violence from the insurgents. The government enforced various restrictive and controversial draconian ordinances that curbed press freedom as the people's right to information despite the fact that the nation's constitution guaranteed full press freedom.Private sector press was subjected to acute censorship and FM radio stations have been totally banned to broadcast news and current affair programs. Newspapers were asked by the government not to print any material on security operation or Maoist insurgency without scrutinizing the facts from the Army. Most newspapers outside Kathmandu have suffered intimidation or arbitrary suspension at the order of District authorities. Nearly 50 percent of local publications were closed down owing to unfavorable conditions created by the State. Due to prohibition on news and news-based programs over private radio stations and strict censorship even on TV channels, several media managements either closed or curtailed programs and relieved staff members. As a result, many journalists have become joblessPeople were completely deprived from right to information and other civil rights such as right to free movement inside the country and freedom of expression and of opinion.Following the February 1 Royal takeover and the imposition of State of Emergency for the second time since 2001, journalists repeatedly faced arbitrary arrests, detention and interrogation. Many journalists were re-arrested even after the Court’s order for their release.
After Restoration of Democracy in 2006:
Despite a historic year for Nepali politics, the country's media faced significant harassment and obstruction; however it contributed enough in bringing the country back to democratic path being a part of the 2006 April Uprising. Ever following the restoration of democracy and signing up of Comprehensive Peace Accord between the Nepali government and CPN (Maoist), a rebel force, Nepali media and media workers did not witness a sigh of relief and respite from the brutal attacks and blatant violation of press freedom perpetrated by the state, CPN (Maoist) including other agitating parties. During the period from April 25, 2006 to April 12, 2008 after the democracy, altogether 676 journalists and media workers (266 in 2064 BS and 410 in 2065) experienced various incidents of press freedom violation. Likewise, three journalists were killed during this period.
The promulgation of Right to Information Act-2064, Working Journalist Act-2064 (Second Amendment) and constitutional guarantee of freedom of press and expression in the Interim Constitution-2064 have been the remarkable achievements yielded in Nepali press.
During the Terai movement launched by Terai-based various agitating parties and groups, Nepali media witnessed another setback as it was manipulated and numerous incidents of attack and atrocity in the series of political confrontation and clash erupted in the Tarai region In short, there is still need for Nepali Media to wage struggle for their professional and physical safety as well as to establish freedom of press and of expression in Nepal.
Although the institutional history of Nepali press could be traced back to 1851 when Rana Prime Minister Jung Bahadur Rana installed a printing press (the Giddhe Press), or in 1901 when the state-owned newspaper, the Gorkhapatra, was launched, its practical history begins in the 1950s, after the fall of Ranas, when several pioneering journalists took to publishing newspapers in a transitional democracy. Thirty years after the royal takeover of 1960 represented a repressive press system. During this time, press enjoyed limited rights and lobbied, to some extent, for a multiparty democracy that could guarantee press freedom. After the Restoration of democracy in 1990 a drastic change came in the Nepali Media particularly in the private sector. Liberal provision and guarantee of press freedom enshrined in the constitution opened up avenues for the private sector to involve on media sector. The 1990's democracy yielded by the People's Movement also established rights and freedom of the press. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal (1990) formally guaranteed the freedom of press and publication.
The 1990 Constitution of Nepal says-No news/articles shall be censored, provided that nothing shall prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignty and integrity of the Kingdom, or which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities; or on any act of sedition, defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or an any act which may be contrary to decent public behavior or morality. No press shall be closed or seized for printing any news item, article or other reading material. The registration of newspaper or periodicals shall not be cancelled merely for publishing any news item, article or other reading material (Article 13). And, according to Article 16 of the Constitution, every citizen shall have the right to demand and receive information on any matter of public importance: provided that nothing in this Article shall compel any person to provide information on any matter about which secrecy is to be maintained by law.
During Maoist Insurgency: and King's Direct Rule:Unfortunately, however, journalism and civil liberties were subjected to victim not only to the government machinery, but also to the violent Maoist insurgency forces in the recent years.During the first State of Emergency (26 Nov 2001-29 Aug 2002), eight journalists were assassinated, six of them by the security forces and two by the rebels. And more than 150 were arrested and tortured in various ways. Nepali journalism suffered a lot while it waged a massive struggle against the King's direct rule. The Nepali press suffered worst form of suppression from the state and also did not remain aloof from the threats, obstructions and violence from the insurgents. The government enforced various restrictive and controversial draconian ordinances that curbed press freedom as the people's right to information despite the fact that the nation's constitution guaranteed full press freedom.Private sector press was subjected to acute censorship and FM radio stations have been totally banned to broadcast news and current affair programs. Newspapers were asked by the government not to print any material on security operation or Maoist insurgency without scrutinizing the facts from the Army. Most newspapers outside Kathmandu have suffered intimidation or arbitrary suspension at the order of District authorities. Nearly 50 percent of local publications were closed down owing to unfavorable conditions created by the State. Due to prohibition on news and news-based programs over private radio stations and strict censorship even on TV channels, several media managements either closed or curtailed programs and relieved staff members. As a result, many journalists have become joblessPeople were completely deprived from right to information and other civil rights such as right to free movement inside the country and freedom of expression and of opinion.Following the February 1 Royal takeover and the imposition of State of Emergency for the second time since 2001, journalists repeatedly faced arbitrary arrests, detention and interrogation. Many journalists were re-arrested even after the Court’s order for their release.
After Restoration of Democracy in 2006:
Despite a historic year for Nepali politics, the country's media faced significant harassment and obstruction; however it contributed enough in bringing the country back to democratic path being a part of the 2006 April Uprising. Ever following the restoration of democracy and signing up of Comprehensive Peace Accord between the Nepali government and CPN (Maoist), a rebel force, Nepali media and media workers did not witness a sigh of relief and respite from the brutal attacks and blatant violation of press freedom perpetrated by the state, CPN (Maoist) including other agitating parties. During the period from April 25, 2006 to April 12, 2008 after the democracy, altogether 676 journalists and media workers (266 in 2064 BS and 410 in 2065) experienced various incidents of press freedom violation. Likewise, three journalists were killed during this period.
The promulgation of Right to Information Act-2064, Working Journalist Act-2064 (Second Amendment) and constitutional guarantee of freedom of press and expression in the Interim Constitution-2064 have been the remarkable achievements yielded in Nepali press.
During the Terai movement launched by Terai-based various agitating parties and groups, Nepali media witnessed another setback as it was manipulated and numerous incidents of attack and atrocity in the series of political confrontation and clash erupted in the Tarai region In short, there is still need for Nepali Media to wage struggle for their professional and physical safety as well as to establish freedom of press and of expression in Nepal.
Federation of Nepalese Journalist and its provision in constitution
FNJ History:"INFORMATION, SECURITY AND FREEDOM FOR PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISM"
Federation of Nepali Journalists : Past and Present
Federation of Nepali Journalists is an umbrella organization that represents all professional journalists in Nepal. It was established on March 29, 1956 (Chaitra 16, 2012 BS) with the name 'Nepal Journalist Association'. Its Founder President was Krishna Prasad Bhattarai who was the then Editor of 'Nepal Pukar Weekly'.
If we trace further back, another organization with a similar name was formed under the Chairmanship of Satyanarayan Shrestha way back in Jestha 2008. This was nothing but the result of the newly-developed democratic environment after the establishment of democracy in 1951 (2007 BS), when professional journalism in Nepal was still in its nascent stage. But this association did not get any continuity. Therefore, March 29, 1956 (Chaitra 16, 2012) is regarded as the official date of FNJ's inception. No activity, on the part of the association formed in 2008 BS, can be seen from 2008 to 2012 BS. This testifies its inactiveness. So, the historical account here concerns with the association that was born in 1956. 2012 BS.
Immediately after its establishment, FNJ started organizing different programs throughout the kingdom in order to consolidate and promote and professional journalism strengthen the foundation of embryonic democracy in Nepal. It was conscious of the grave role it had to play for the upliftment of Nepalese society.
A team from the central committee was sent to visit Europe and USSR in 2013 BS. This was the first ever official visit by Nepalese journalists to foreign countries. And this was very fruitful. This ushered in a new age in the history of Nepalese journalism by initiating close ties at the international level. Towards the end of 2013 BS, Dataram Sharma was elected as the second president of FNJ, who continued in office for two successive years. And then Mr Gopal Das Shrestha were elected as a president of 2015 BC. for two years.
Nepalese Journalism faced a brief threat in Poush 2017 (1961) when democracy was usurped. Many active journalists were arrested and put behind the bars. Among the high profile ones were Fatte Bahadur Singh, Tarini Prasad Koirala, Ramesh Nath Pande and Gopal Prasad Bhatta. Reputed dailies of those days were shuttred. Thus, Nepalese Journalism came to a standstill at this point and became severely handicapped. It had to pass through a considerably long and dark phase before the atmos phere for publications could be restored.
Fatte Bahadur Singh was elected as the president of FNJ in 2018 B.S. Then followed Pashupati Dev Pandey in 2023, Manindra Raj Shrestha in 2025 and Gopal Das Shrestha in 2027. In the mean time, a more liberal Press Policy was declared by the government and an important progress was made by establishing the Press Council. FNJ had played the role of a catalyst in accomplishing these historic feats. Then, Gokarna Raj Pande in 2030 BS, Indu Kant Sharma in 2033 BS and Manju Ratna Shakya in 2035 BS were elected for the coveted post of FNJ's President. During this period, though FNJ played a constructive role in establishing the Press Council and contributed a great deal to the promotion of journalism in association with different press commissions, it could take no concrete steps to maintain press freedom , which was curbed after the abolition of multi-party system in 2017 BS.
A score of events during this dark phase clearly manifest the sycophancy of the Federation in the subsequent years. The leadership became more a follower of the autocratic rulers than a critic. This betrayed the feelings and aspirations of many serious media people in a sense, FNJ failed to represent the journalists at this point. Especially, after 2036 BS FNJ was badly affected by holiganism (Mandale Prabritti) Thus, the people who were in favor of professional and disciplined journalism gradually drifted away from the federation. The federation did not seem active during the period though it was headed by Nirmal Kumar Aryal in 2039 BS and again by Manju Ratna Shakya in 2042 BS. However, some senior journalists made relentless effort to identify FNJ as the apex media organisation in Nepal. In this course, a national level convention of journalists was held in 2043 at Thapathali branch of Rotaray Club. But, unfortunately, the police interfered with the convention. Some participants were severely wounded and some others were arrested. Neverthless, this congregation declared the two preceding leaderships of FNJ to be illegitimate and reorganised it under the Presidentship of Mani Raj Upadhyaya. It decided to lead the then ongoing struggle for press freedom. Two -third of the professional journalists were in favour of the FNJ headed by Mr. Upadhyaya-- they had strong support and belief in his leadership. Still, the rulers of those days did not recognize the essence of the Federation. Gobind Biyogi succeeded Mr. Upadhyaya in 2045 and continued upto Chaitra 8, 2049. FNJ extended its strong support to the popular mass movement in 2046 BS, (1990) since it (March, 1993) thought the restoration of democracy was an inevitable precondition for the freedom of the press.
FNJ did all it could to give a momentum to the popular movement. It not only strongly defied the attacks on press but also actively diversified the movement. It also played a remarkable role in drafting the present constitution.
In the sixteenth General Assembly of the Federation, held on Chaitra 9, 2049 BS, (March, 1993) in Biratnagar, Hom Nath Dahal was elected the President. He was succeeded by Harihar Birahi Baishakh 16, 2052 BS (May, 1996) in the seventeenth General Assembly held in Jhapa.
TRANSITION INTO A FEDERATION After the restoration of democracy, journalism field in Nepal found a completely new dimension. Accordingly its responsibility also increased along with the changed political situation.
Journalists could now organize themselves on the basis of subjects, principles etc. They were now endowed with an open environment. Different media and journalism related organisations began to spawn. With this, a necessity was felt for bringing all these organisations and media personnel under a single national umbrella. The number of journalists too had increased manifold after the restoration of democracy. District level branches of the Association (it was yet to evolve formally as a federation) were extensively established throughout the country. Later, it was thought that the time had finally come to develop the then Nepal Journalists Association into a Federation. The Central Committee introduced the concept of a Federation into the constitution of the Association. The Association was officially announced the Federation of Nepalese Journalists (FNJ) on Ashad 11, 2053 (June, 1996) at the presence of some of its founder members. All these were accomplished during the presidentship of Harihar Birahi. He is, therefore, regarded as the first President of the FNJ as it in recogniged today. changed Federation.
The annual meeting held in Dharan on Jestha 28 and 29 of 2053 BS endorsed the constitution of the Federation. Kishore Nepal was elected as the President of FNJ in its 18th General Assembly held on Bhadra 30, 2054 BS. Likewise, the 19th General Assembly held on 9 Mangshir 2056 BS had elected Suresh Acharya as the President. The author had the privilege of succeeding Mr Acharya after the 20th general Assembly held in May, 2002.
FNJ now has a 45 year old history and over the years it has passed through many ups and downs. But now it has evolved as a strong organization. So much so that its member branches have reached 60 and over 3500 journalists are now actively associated with it. It has already built its own office building in The Media Village established in joint cooperation with the Press Council. The process of building the offices of its district branches is on. This proves that FNJ is no more a commonplace NGO.
OBJECTIVES OF FNJ
i. To organize and unite the journalists working in different fields of mass media throughout the country, and provide them with professional leadership.
ii. To represent the interests of journalists and to preserve their rights.
iii. To develop responsible, accountable and disciplined journalism and thereby respect the principles of press liberty.
iv. To maintain friendly relationship with national and international media organizations and exchange representatives with them.
v. To conduct study, investigation, seminars, trainings, symposium etc. on subjects related to journalism.vi. To take other necessary steps for the betterment of journalism in Nepal.
ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE
After the Nepal Journalists Association adopted the nature of a Federation during Birahi's tenure, its structure too was naturally changed. The federation's constitution 2053 (First amendment, 2057) clearly describes its structure. According to it, President, General secretary, Secretary, Treasurer and 8 members can be elected by all the council members of the General Assembly of the Federation. There is also the provision of electing 3 members from associate members. Five vice-presidents are appointed in accordance with the development zone. The Representative of Central Council of the respective development zones are to elect the vice President. The constitution also lays down the provision of appointing 4 central members by the elected working committee.Along with this, there are 3 categories of members in the FNJ. regular members, associate members and honorary members. Except the honorary members others can vote or be the nominees in the respective process.The branches with general and associate membership can elect the representatives of central council at 5:1 or 20 percent ratio. These are the people who are allowed to take part in the central General Assembly of the Federation.
THE MAIN FUNCTION OF FNJ
FNJalways aspires to accomplish the objectives determined by its constitution. These are the basis of its functions. The foremost function of FNJ is to preserve and promote the freedom of the press in Nepal and to foster journalism as a whole. It also carries out different programs to promote professional journalism and protect the rights and privilleges of all occupational journalists. Maintaining the ethics of journalism is yet another grave responsibility of FNJ. It also conducts trainings in order to enhance the journalistic expertise of media personnel so that they can walk along with the international standard. Other than these, FNJ has always been pioneering in the formulation and implementation of policies related to mass media.
It has already been mentioned that the Federation of Nepali Journalists is the umbrella organization with representation of all sorts of journalists in Nepal. It is worth mentioning that FNJ is not only concerned with journalists, it is also equally attentive to the problems faced the concerned entrepreneurs. It also plays a role in sorting out the disputes in transmission, publicity distribution system, advertisement and so forth.
In a nutshell, FNJ plays the role of a Press Police by ensuring the well-being of the press personnel and also of the press entrpreneurs, by formulating press policies and upholding the principle of an independent press.
It is a matter of pride for the Nepali journalists that nowhere in the whole world exists such an organization that incorporates media men from every background of media-print, electronic and cyber. The development of such an organization that represents all the segments of media on a professional level is certainly a remarkable achievement.
Everyone concerned should be extremely sensitive toward making FNJ a common association for protecting the privileges of all Nepalese media personnel. This attitude will ensure and diversify the existence of FNJ forever.The office of FNJ is situated at Sanchar Gram, Tilganga, Which is near Kathmandu's Tribhuvan International Airport.
Main Agenda of FNJ:
Protection of Freedom of press and the freedom expression.
Implementation of working Journalists law
Formation of Right to Information Act
Implementation of code of conduct
Protection of journalists
Formation of new mass communication policy
Mobilization of press for social development
Formation of national Advertisement Policy and Program
Skill development of Journalists
Development of Media village
National policy for the smooth movement and distribution of the press materials and production
Interim constitution guarantees press freedom
The Interim Constitution 2007 of Nepal, under its preamble, has expressed commitment to "full freedom of press, independent of judiciary and concept of rule of law."
The Interim Constitution guarantees freedom of expression to every citizen under Fundamental Rights in Part 3. Article 12 (3) (a) freedom of opinion and expressionb. freedom to assemble peaceable and without armsc. freedom to form political party or organizationsd. freedom to form unions and associationsProvided that, Nothing in sub-clause (a)shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignity and intgrity of Nepal, or which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes, religion or communities, or on any act of defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or on any act which may be contrary to decent public behavior or morality.
Similarly, the Interim Constitution under Article 15 has guaranteed the following publication, broadcasting and press rights:
15. Right Regarding Publication, Broadcasting and Press: (1) No publication and broadcasting or printing of any news items, editorial, article, writings or other readings, audio-visual materials, by any means including electronic publication, braodcasting and press, shall be censored.
Provided that nothing shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignity or integrity of Nepal, or which may jeopardise the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities; or on any act of sedition, defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or on any act which may be contrary to decent public behaviour or morality.
(2) No radio, television, online or any other types of digital or electronic means, press or any other communication media shall be closed, seized or be cancelled the registration because of publishing and bradcasting or printing any material by such mens of audio, audio-visual or electronic equipments.
(3) No newspaper, periodical or press shall be closed, seized or be cancelled the registration for printing and publishing any news items, articles, editorial, writings or other reading materials.
(4) No communication means including press, electronic broadcasting and telephone shall be obstructed except in accordance with law.
27. Right to Information: (1) Every citizen shall have the right to demand or obtain information on any matters of his/her own or of public importance.
Provided that nothing shall compel any person to provide information on any matter about which secrecy is to be maintained by law.
28. Right to privacy: (1) Except on the circumstance as provided by law, the privacy of the person, residence, property, document, statistics, correspondence and character of anyone is inviolable.
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(Previous Constitution)The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 provides for the following fundamental rights and press freedom:-
PART 3
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
11. Right to Equality:
(1) All citizens shall be equal before the law. No person shall be denied the equal protection of the laws.
(2) No discrimination shall be made against any citizen in the application of general laws on grounds of religion (dharma), race (varya), sex (linga), caste (jât), tribe (jâti) or ideological conviction (vaicârik) or any of these.
(3) The State shall not discriminate among citizens on grounds of religion, race, sex, caste, tribe, or ideological conviction or any of these.
Provided that special provisions may be made by law for the protection and advancement of the interests of women, children, the aged or those who are physically or mentally incapacitated or those who belong to a class which is economically, socially or educationally backward.
(4) No person shall, on the basis of caste, be discriminated against as untouchable, be denied access to any public place, or be deprived of the use of public utilities. Any contravention of this provision shall be punishable by law.
(5) No discrimination in regard to remuneration shall be made between men and women for the same work.
12. Right to Freedom:
(1) No person shall be deprived of his personal liberty save in accordance with law, and no law shall be made which provides for capital punishment.
(2) All citizens shall have the following freedoms:
(a) freedom of opinion and expression;
(b) freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms;
(c) freedom to form unions and associations;
(d) freedom to move throughout the Kingdom and reside in any part thereof; and
(e) freedom to practise any profession, or to carry on any occupation, industry, or trade.
Provided that -
(1) nothing in sub-clause (a) shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignty and integrity of the Kingdom of Nepal, or which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities, or on any act of sedition, defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or on any act which may be contrary to decent public behaviour or morality;
(2) nothing in sub-clause (b) shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignty, integrity or law and order situation of the Kingdom of Nepal;
(3) nothing in sub-clause (c) shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignty and integrity of the Kingdom of Nepal, which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities, which may instigate violence, or which may be contrary to public morality;
(4) nothing in sub-clause (d) shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws which are in the interest of the general public, or which are made to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities;
(5) nothing in sub-clause (e) shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose restriction on any act which may be contrary to public health or morality, to confer on the State the exclusive right to undertake specified industries, businesses or services; or to impose any condition or qualification for carrying on any industry, trade, profession or occupation.
13. Press and Publication Right:
(1) No news item, article or any other reading material shall be censored.
Provided that nothing shall prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignty and integrity of the Kingdom of Nepal, or which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities; or on any act of sedition, defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or on any act against which may be contrary to decent public behaviour or morality.
(2) No press shall be closed or seized for printing any news item, article or other reading material.
(3) The registration of a newspaper or periodical shall not be canceled merely for publishing any news item, article or other reading material.
14. Right Regarding Criminal Justice:
(1) No person shall be punished for an act which was not punishable by law when the act was committed, nor shall any person be subjected to a punishment greater than that prescribed by the law in force at the time of the commission of the offence.
(2) No person shall be prosecuted or punished for the same offence in a court of law more than once.
(3) No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
(4) No person who is detained during investigation or for trial or for any other reason shall be subjected to physical or mental torture, nor shall be given any cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. Any person so treated shall be compensated in a manner as determined by law.
(5) No person who is arrested shall be detained in custody without being informed, as soon as may be, of the grounds for such arrest, nor shall be denied the right to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of his choice.
Explanation: For the purpose of this clause, the words "legal practitioner" shall mean any person who is authorised by law to represent any person in any court.
(6) Every person who is arrested and detained in custody shall be produced before a judicial authority within a period of twenty-four hours after such arrest, excluding the time necessary for the journey from the place of arrest to such authority, and no such person shall be detained in custody beyond the said period except on the order of such authority.
(7) Nothing in clauses (5) and (6) shall apply to a citizen of an enemy state, and nothing in clause (6) shall apply to any person who is arrested or detained under any law providing for preventive detention.
15. Right against Preventive Detention:
(1) No person shall be held under preventive detention unless there is a sufficient ground of existence of an immediate threat to the sovereignty, integrity or law and order situation of the Kingdom of Nepal.
(2) Any person held under preventive detention shall, if his detention was contrary to law or in bad faith, have the right to be compensated in a manner as prescribed by law.
16. Right to Information:
Every citizen shall have the right to demand and receive information on any matter of public importance;
Provided that nothing in this Article shall compel any person to provide information on any matter about which secrecy is to be maintained by law.
17. Right to Property:
(1) All citizens shall, subject to the existing laws, have the right to acquire, own, sell and otherwise dispose of, property.
(2) The State shall not, except in the public interest, requisition, acquire or create any encumbrance on, the property of any person.
(3) The basis of compensation and procedure for giving compensation for any property requisitioned, acquired or encumbered by the State for in the public interest, shall be as prescribed by law.
18. Cultural and Educational Right:
(1) Each community residing within the Kingdom of Nepal shall have the right to preserve and promote its language, script and culture.
(2) Each community shall have the right to operate schools up to the primary level in its own mother tongue for imparting education to its children.
19. Right to Religion:
(1) Every person shall have the freedom to profess and practise his own religion as handed down to him from ancient times having due regard to traditional practices;
provided that no person shall be entitled to convert another person from one religion to another.[3]
(2) Every religious denomination shall have the right to maintain its independent existence and for this purpose to manage and protect its religious places and trusts.
20. Right against Exploitation:
(1) Traffic in human beings, slavery, serfdom or forced labour in any form is prohibited. Any contravention of this provision shall be punishable by law;
Provided that nothing herein shall be a bar to providing by law for compulsory service for public purposes.
(2) No minor shall be employed in work in any factory or mine, or be engaged in any other hazardous work.
21. Right against Exile:
No citizen shall be exiled.
22. Right to Privacy:
Except as provided by law, the privacy of the person, house, property, document, correspondence or information of anyone is inviolable.
23. Right to Constitutional Remedy:
The right to proceed in the manner set forth in Article 88 for the enforcement of the rights conferred by this Part is guaranteed.
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JOURNALIST CODE OF CONDUCT2003 (2060)
Preamble :
Whereas, it is expedient to revise the existing code of conduct by covering all means of mass media and adjusting timely international practices and norms, with a basic objective of safegaurding the freedoms and rights gauranteed by the Consitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 2047 (1990) and making the people well-informed, and making the mass media and the journalists more responsive towards the nation and the society, and avoiding misuses of the same, by protecting the freedom of press by means of making the mass media and the journalists responsible and professional for the development of healthy journalism;
Now, therefore, with the consent of the Nepal Journalist Federation, as well, this Journalist Code of Conduct, 2060 (2003) has been framed and enforced, pursuant to Section 7(b) of the Press Council Act.
1. Title, Commencement and Extension:
(1) This Code of Conduct may be cited as the "Journalist Code of Conduct, 2060 (2003)".
(2) This Code of Conduct shall commence forthwith.
(3) This Code of Conduct shall apply to all journalists and communication media working in the Kingdom of Nepal.
2. Unless the subject or the context otherwise requires, in this Code of Conduct,-
(a) "Journalist" means a media worker related with the profession of journalism such as a chief editor, editor, member of editorial board, correspondent, columnist, photo journalist, press cameraman, cartoonist, program producer and runner, costume, scene and language editor associated with activities such as collection, production, edition and transmission of news materials through communication media of any nature like printing, electronic and on-line means.
(b) "media" includes newspapers, radio and television broadcasts and internet news and thoughtfull on-line services operated in the Kingdom of Nepal.
(c) "Council" means the Press Council-Nepal.
3. The journalist and media shall perform the following duties:
(1) Protection and promotion of press freedom: Being freedom of opinion and expression a basic right of a citizen, to always remain firm, vigilant and alert for its protection and promotion.
(2) Recognition of human rights and international relations: To enhance protection and promotion of democracy, justice, equality peace and international collaboration and fraternity among friendly nations, while at the same time recognizing rights, interests, principles, norms and practices guaranteed by human rights related international instruments.
(3) Safeguard and enforcement of the right to information: To always remain active and dedicated to safeguard the right of the people to be well-informed.
(4) Imparting true and factual informaiton: To impart true, factual, impartial as well as balanced information in order to achive the goal of professional journalism.
(5) Editorial freedom: A journalist should have responsibility and accountability for production and impartation of the materials published-broadcast in the media.
(6) Recognition of right to privacy : To recognize personal and professional secrecy except in cases where it causes adverse impact on the public interest.
(7) High professional practice : To exercise high professional practice in order to carry out responsibility, accountability and reliability, being dedicated to the basic norms and principles of journalism.
(8) Decent behavement: To remain alert for moral, courteous and decent working style and language, while at the same time recognizing social decency in professional practice.
(9) Readiness to rectify errors: Upon information of any error or mistake in publication and broadcast, to rectify such error or mistake as soon as possible, and to give proper place for a refusal or dinial or response, accompanied by evidence, and publish-broadcast the same in clear language.
(10) Social responsibility: Social responsibility shall be to render special assistance through flow of information and opinions in the upliftment and development of the disabled, helpless, incapacitated, children, women and backward class, sector, nationalities and minor communities.
(11) Mutual relationship among journalists and media should be professional, healthy, tempered, courteous and harmonious.
4. The journalist and media shall not carry out the following acts:
(1) Not to undermine national integrity: Not to publish and broadcast any news and opinion that may undermine the sovereignty and integrity of the multiethnic, multilingual and multireligious Kingdom of Nepal or jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities or contain act of defamation or contempt of court or be contrary to decent public behaviour or morality.
(2) Not to adversely affect social structure : Not to publish and broadcast such deformed and provocative materials as may cause adverse impacts on the social structure and be contrary to professional dignity.
(3) Not to disclose secret source of news: To quote source in presenting any news for the authenticity and reliability of the news; but protecting such secret source being a duty of the journalist, to keep secret the name and identification of such source, except in cases of permission by the source.
(4) Not to use for fulfillment of personal interest: Not to use any information materials, obtained for publication-broadcast of the same, for fulfillment of personal interest.
(5) Not to flow information in a discriminatory manner: Not to flow or impart any news and opinion in such a manner as to discriminate on such grounds as of race, sex, religion, region, language and color.
(6) Not to flow information in a manner to make victim suffer further pain: Not to publish broadcast any news and opinion through the use of language, picture, figure and scene, as well, in such a manner as as to make the victim suffer further pain.
(7) Not to publish name, address and identification of a victim: Not to publish broadcast any news, picture and scene in such a manner as a disclose the name, address and identification of a victim with regard to a sexual crime or social disregard or any hateful event or context.
(8) Not to encourage violence, terrorism and crime: Not to present any news, opinion, picture and scene in a manner to encourage disruption, violence, terrorism and crime and to exaggerate such activity.
(9) Not to publish and broadcast naked scene and picture in a manner to spread out hatred and provocation: Not to publish any hurt, naked and hatred provoking scene and picture in a manner to spread out nakedness and provocation and not to be contextual.
(10) Not to mention name of the person not related with event: In publishing-broadcasting any news related with any event, not to present such news in a manner to undermine dignity or defame character of a relative or intimate person not related with the event, by attaching the name of such relative or person to such event.
(11) Not to publish unfactual news: Not to distort the fact, confuse for undue benefit, and publish a factless remark as news.
(12) Not to present advertisement as news: Neither to present an advertisement as news nor to refute news by way of advertisement; and a communication media shall not generally refute any news published and broadcast in another media.
(13) Not to use without quoting source: In using any news materials communicated by any news agency or media, not to publish or broadcast the same without quoting such original source.
5. Complaint and complaint procedures:
1) A victim may file a complaint with the council against any journalist and media within the time-limit referred to in sub-section (4), accompanied by factual evidence showing violation of the conducts mentioned in this Code of Conduct. If such a complaint is filed and the Council thinks, upon holding general inquiry, that any act has been done in violation of this Code of Conduct, the Council shall send summons, accompanied by a copy of the complaint, to the accused party, requiring that party to make presence along with evidence, if any, showing innocence, generally within seven days or within such time-limit before seven days as the Council may think fit.
2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), if any journalist or media publishes and broadcasts any news in a maner to cause negative impacts directly or indirectly on the public interest and concern. The Council may on its own initiate action against such journalist or media, pursuant to this Code of Conduct.
3) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), the Council may, after general inquiry as to the complaint and before sending the summons to the accused party, give the concerned journalist or media such necessary direction as to immediately refute the news or beg a pardon or send reasonable reply.
4) If a complaint on publication and broadcast of any news by a journalist and media in violation of this Code of Conduct is not filed within fifteen days of publication and broadcast of such news, such a complain shall not lie. If there is any resonable reason for failing to file a complaint within the time-limit, the Council may entertain a complaint at any time.
5) After a written response has been filed with the Council by the accused party under the above mentioned sub-sections or despite that no response is filed within the specified time-limit, the council shall make decision on that matter within twenty days in general.
6) Prior to making a decision pursuant to sub-section (5), the Council may, if it thinks necessary, summon presence of both the complainant and the accused party and hold discussions between them.
7) If the complainant and the accused party reach a compromise and make a joint request in writing for compromise, the Council may execute compromise and settle the dispute.
6. Provision on Decision and Enforcement
If any party is held to have committed a conduct prohibited by clause (b) of Section 3 of this Code of Conduct, the Council shall make decision and take action as follows in a respective manner:-
1) The Council shall order the concerned media to publish and broadcast the decision made on the complaint in such form, place and time as may be specified by the Council.
2) If the accused party does not carry out the order given under sub-section (1), the Council shall make recommendation to the concerned body to suspend the press pass of such party if that party holds such pass.
3) If the accused party does not act under sub-section (1) even after suspension of the press pass pursuant to sub-section (2), the distribution verification committee of the Council shall remove the media of such party from evaluation process.
4) If the party does not observe the decision referred to in sub-section (1) even after removing from the evaluation process pursuant to sub-section (3) above, not assistance shall be provided to such party from the welfare fund of the Council.
5) If the party does not carry out the act directed under sub-section (1) even after cutting out assistance from the welfare fund pursuant to sub-section (4), the Council shall make recommendation to the concerned body to suspend the facilities to be provided by His Majesty's Government, for a certain period.
Provided, however, that the Council may, if it thinks necessary, take both actions referred to in sub-sections (4) and (5) at the same time.
6) The Council shall express regret over the journalist and media failing to carry out any decision of the Council and publish boardcast this matter publicly.
7. Repeal :
The Journalist Code of Conduct, 2055 is hereby repealed.
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The National Broadcasting Act, 1993
Date of Royal Assent and Publication2050.2.27.4 (Wednesday, 9 June 1993)
The Act Amending Some Nepal Acts Relating to Communications, 2057 (2000)
2057.10.18 (Jan. 31, 2001)
Act number 6 of the year 2049 (1993)
An Act made to provide for national broadcasting
Preamble:
Whereas, in order to protect and promote the freedom of expression and the right to be informed guaranteed to the people by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 2047 (1990), and to raise public awareness also through the language of the nation as well as national languages by creating an environment of equality, mutual good faith, and harmony amongst all the tribes, languages, classes, regions and religious denominations by imparting economic, social and cultural activities of the country to the people through the broadcasting system, it is expedient to make legal provisions on the broadcasting , without any obstruction, of the flow of information in order that the general public get informed about impartial as well as authentic news and information taking place at the national and international level, by making the broadcasting media reliable, effective and strong, with the use of modern technology available in the field of information and communications;
Now, therefore, be it enacted by Parliament in the twenty-second year of the reign of His Majesty the King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev.
1. Short title and commencement :
(1) This Act may be cited as the "National Broadcasting Act, 2049 (1993)"
(2) This Act shall come into force forthwith.
2. Definitions : Unless the subject or the context otherwise requires, in this Act, -
(a) "Broadcasting " means the radio communication service to be so sent through signal, sound, image, picture or similar other way that the general public may get information.
(b) "Program" means any kind of program to be broadcast through audio or audio-visual means.
(c) "Frequency modulation broadcasting system" means a broadcasting made for the radio or television technology, by a broadcasting institution through the prescribed channel by using the frequency modulation broadcasting system.
(d) "License" means the broadcasting license to be issued pursuant to Section 6 for broadcasting any program or the license to be issued for broadcasting by establishing the frequency modulation broadcasting system.
(e) "Broadcasting institution" means a person or body corporate having obtained the license to broadcast programs under this Act.
(f) "Satellite" means the satellite placed in the space in order to obtain various broadcasting materials or send them elsewhere.
(g) "Cable" means the technology by which broadcasting materials are sent to various customers, members or consumers by wire from any certain broadcasting station.
(h) "Earth station" means a station to be established in the earth surface in order to exchange broadcasting programs through satellite.
(i) "Broadcaster" means a person reading out a program to be broadcast by a broadcasting institution, and this term also includes a person who composes and edits such program.
(j) "Prescribed” or “as prescribed" means prescribed or as prescribed in the Rules framed under this Act.
3. Supervision and operation of programs relating to broadcasting: His Majesty's Government shall have the powers to formulate policies on supervision and operation of programs relating to broadcasting within the Kingdom of Nepal.
4. Prohibition on broadcasting without license: No one shall broadcast any program without obtaining the license pursuant to this Act.
5. Application for license: Any person or body corporate who intends to broadcast any program by way of satellite, cable or other means of communication or to broadcast any didactic, entertaining and informative programs by establishing the frequency modulation broadcasting system in any place within the Kingdom of Nepal shall submit to His Majesty's Government an application in such format and accompanied by such fee as prescribed.
6. Issuance of license: Upon receipt of an application referred to in Section 5, His Majesty's Government may, holding necessary inquiry into the application, issue the license, in the prescribed format, for broadcasting a program, subject to observance of the prescribed terms.
7. Powers to prevent broadcasting: Taking into account of the nation and national interest, His Majesty's Government may, by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette, prevent any program pertaining to any particular subject, event or area from being broadcast by a broadcasting institution, for a period not exceeding six months at a time.
8. Power to cancel license of broadcasting institution: (1) If any broadcasting institution broadcasts any program in contravention of this Act or the Rules framed hereunder, His Majesty's Government may cancel the license obtained by such broadcasting institution.
(2) Prior to cancellation of the license under sub-section (1), His Majesty's Government shall give a reasonable opportunity to such broadcasting institution to defend itself.
9. Special provisions on establishment of earth station: (1) Any person or corporate body, or a native and foreign person or corporate body in joint investment, who intends to broadcast any program by establishing the earth station relating to satellite and cable television, has to submit an application to His Majesty's Government for permission.
(2) Upon receipt of an application referred to in sub-section (1), His Majesty's Government may, if, following necessary inquiry into that application, it deems reasonable to give permission to the applicant to broadcast any program by establishing the earth station relating to satellite and cable television, issue permission, as prescribed, to broadcast the prescribed programs, subject to observance of the prescribed terms.
(3) Other provisions on the establishment of the earth station and broadcasting shall be as prescribed.
10. Broadcasting and distribution fee: If a broadcasting institution intends to distribute and operate any program, the fees to be paid to His Majesty's Government or the prescribed organization and the fees to be collected from the persons or bodies using such program shall be as prescribed.
11. Production and broadcasting of programs: While producing and broadcasting any program, a broadcasting institution has to give priority to the following matters:-
(a) Development-oriented programs such as agriculture, education, industry, commerce, science and technology, health, family planning and forest and environment protection,
(b) Such kinds of programs as to enhance equality, mutual good faith and harmony amongst all the tribes, languages, classes, areas and religious denominations,
(c) Programs that contribute to the upliftment of various languages and cultures of Nepal,
(d) Programs on such subjects as may enhance the national interest and national unity,
(e) Programs on such subjects as may raise national consciousness and moral awareness,
(f) Such kinds of programs as to raise social consciousness and develop democratic values, norms and culture in the people,
(g) Programs on such subjects as may not cause adverse impact on the relations between Nepal and neighboring countries as well as friendly countries,
(h) Programs relating to the foreign policy pursued by the country,
(i) Programs promoting folk songs and folk cultures,
(j) Important activities happening or taking place at the national and international level.
12. Participation of private sector in production and broadcasting of program: In addition to the public sector, the private sector may also be got involved so as to make any programs fair, simple, efficient and effective.
13. Provision of time to foreign broadcasting institution or communication media: If any foreign broadcasting institutions or communication media intend to get any program broadcast by a broadcasting institution, time may be provided to broadcast any didactic, entertaining and informative programs, based on the prescribed standards, without causing any adverse impact on the national interest.
14. Provision of time to broadcast advertisement: If any person intends to get any advertisement on publicity of any matter broadcast to the general public, time may be provided for broadcasting that advertisement, by collecting the prescribed fee from such person, institution or body.
Provided, however, that the broadcasting of advertisement of substances, such as smoking and liquors, causing harm to the public health shall be discouraged.
15. Prohibition on broadcasting of advertisement: (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in Section 14, no one shall broadcast, or cause to be broadcast, any advertisement of the following matters:-
(a) Matters adversely affecting political parties,
(b) Materials of vulgar type,
(c) Materials with object to oust the elected government by using violent force;
(d) Matters of such a nature as to create unusual fear and terror in the general public,
(e) Matters contrary to the non-aligned foreign policy of Nepal,
(f) Materials misinterpreting disregarding, insulting and devaluing any tribe, language, religion and culture.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), nothing contained in this Section shall be deemed to prevent His Majesty's Government, in consultation with the Election Commission, from allowing any political party to give information about matters such as manifesto, program or philosophy of such party, at the time of election.
16. Functions, duties and powers of broadcaster: The functions, duties and powers of the broadcaster shall be as follows: -
(a) To have necessary investigation as to the truth of the information, news, articles or programs received by him and broadcast, or cause to broadcast, them at the specified time,
(b) To edit and broadcast, or cause to be edited and broadcast, the news by being politically neutral,
(c) Not to broadcast, nor cause to be broadcast, such kinds of programs as may undermine public security, moral and social decency,
(d) Not to broadcast, nor cause to be broadcast, any matters recklessly or negligently,
(e) Even if broadcasting is to be made about any debatable matter, to broadcast it by analyzing it from all viewpoints to the extent possible, and without twisting the state of affairs,
(f) Not to collect and broadcast false and illusive news,
(g) To carry out such other functions as specified by the broadcasting institution.
17. Punishment: (1) If any person broadcasts, or causes to be broadcast, any program without obtaining the license of broadcasting institution pursuant to Section 6 or without obtaining permission pursuant to Section 9, such person shall be punished, by order of the prescribed authority, with a fine of a sum equal to the license and permission letter fee and the charge as referred to in Section 10, by recovering such fee and charge ten [1] or with imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or with both punishments.
(2) If any person broadcasts, or causes to be broadcast, any program in contravention of this Act or the Rules framed hereunder or commits, or causes to be committed, any act in contravention of this Act or the Rules framed hereunder, the prescribed authority may punish such broadcasting institution, broadcaster or other related person with a fine not exceeding ten thousand rupees or with imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or with both punishments.
18. Appeal: Any person who is not satisfied with any order or punished made or imposed by His Majesty's Government or the prescribed authority may file an appeal to the concerned Appellate Court within thirty-five days.
19. Security of broadcasting institution: If His Majesty's Government thinks that there is a likelihood of any kind of loss or damage to a broadcasting institution because of a riot or unrest, it may arrange for security by sending security force to that place for such period as it may think necessary.
20. Delegation of powers: His Majesty's Government may delegate any or all of the powers conferred on it by this Act to any authority or body.
21. Powers to frame Rules: His Majesty's Government may frame necessary Rules in order to implement the objectives of this Act.
22. Prevalence of prevailing law: The matters contained in this Act shall be governed by this Act, and the other matters shall be governed by the prevailing law.
23. Saving: Notwithstanding anything contained elsewhere in this Act, a body corporate fully or partly owned by His Majesty's Government established prior to the commencement of this Act shall be deemed to have obtained the license of broadcasting institution under this Act.
[1] Amended by the Act Amending Some Nepal Acts Relating to Communications, 2057 (2000).
Federation of Nepali Journalists : Past and Present
Federation of Nepali Journalists is an umbrella organization that represents all professional journalists in Nepal. It was established on March 29, 1956 (Chaitra 16, 2012 BS) with the name 'Nepal Journalist Association'. Its Founder President was Krishna Prasad Bhattarai who was the then Editor of 'Nepal Pukar Weekly'.
If we trace further back, another organization with a similar name was formed under the Chairmanship of Satyanarayan Shrestha way back in Jestha 2008. This was nothing but the result of the newly-developed democratic environment after the establishment of democracy in 1951 (2007 BS), when professional journalism in Nepal was still in its nascent stage. But this association did not get any continuity. Therefore, March 29, 1956 (Chaitra 16, 2012) is regarded as the official date of FNJ's inception. No activity, on the part of the association formed in 2008 BS, can be seen from 2008 to 2012 BS. This testifies its inactiveness. So, the historical account here concerns with the association that was born in 1956. 2012 BS.
Immediately after its establishment, FNJ started organizing different programs throughout the kingdom in order to consolidate and promote and professional journalism strengthen the foundation of embryonic democracy in Nepal. It was conscious of the grave role it had to play for the upliftment of Nepalese society.
A team from the central committee was sent to visit Europe and USSR in 2013 BS. This was the first ever official visit by Nepalese journalists to foreign countries. And this was very fruitful. This ushered in a new age in the history of Nepalese journalism by initiating close ties at the international level. Towards the end of 2013 BS, Dataram Sharma was elected as the second president of FNJ, who continued in office for two successive years. And then Mr Gopal Das Shrestha were elected as a president of 2015 BC. for two years.
Nepalese Journalism faced a brief threat in Poush 2017 (1961) when democracy was usurped. Many active journalists were arrested and put behind the bars. Among the high profile ones were Fatte Bahadur Singh, Tarini Prasad Koirala, Ramesh Nath Pande and Gopal Prasad Bhatta. Reputed dailies of those days were shuttred. Thus, Nepalese Journalism came to a standstill at this point and became severely handicapped. It had to pass through a considerably long and dark phase before the atmos phere for publications could be restored.
Fatte Bahadur Singh was elected as the president of FNJ in 2018 B.S. Then followed Pashupati Dev Pandey in 2023, Manindra Raj Shrestha in 2025 and Gopal Das Shrestha in 2027. In the mean time, a more liberal Press Policy was declared by the government and an important progress was made by establishing the Press Council. FNJ had played the role of a catalyst in accomplishing these historic feats. Then, Gokarna Raj Pande in 2030 BS, Indu Kant Sharma in 2033 BS and Manju Ratna Shakya in 2035 BS were elected for the coveted post of FNJ's President. During this period, though FNJ played a constructive role in establishing the Press Council and contributed a great deal to the promotion of journalism in association with different press commissions, it could take no concrete steps to maintain press freedom , which was curbed after the abolition of multi-party system in 2017 BS.
A score of events during this dark phase clearly manifest the sycophancy of the Federation in the subsequent years. The leadership became more a follower of the autocratic rulers than a critic. This betrayed the feelings and aspirations of many serious media people in a sense, FNJ failed to represent the journalists at this point. Especially, after 2036 BS FNJ was badly affected by holiganism (Mandale Prabritti) Thus, the people who were in favor of professional and disciplined journalism gradually drifted away from the federation. The federation did not seem active during the period though it was headed by Nirmal Kumar Aryal in 2039 BS and again by Manju Ratna Shakya in 2042 BS. However, some senior journalists made relentless effort to identify FNJ as the apex media organisation in Nepal. In this course, a national level convention of journalists was held in 2043 at Thapathali branch of Rotaray Club. But, unfortunately, the police interfered with the convention. Some participants were severely wounded and some others were arrested. Neverthless, this congregation declared the two preceding leaderships of FNJ to be illegitimate and reorganised it under the Presidentship of Mani Raj Upadhyaya. It decided to lead the then ongoing struggle for press freedom. Two -third of the professional journalists were in favour of the FNJ headed by Mr. Upadhyaya-- they had strong support and belief in his leadership. Still, the rulers of those days did not recognize the essence of the Federation. Gobind Biyogi succeeded Mr. Upadhyaya in 2045 and continued upto Chaitra 8, 2049. FNJ extended its strong support to the popular mass movement in 2046 BS, (1990) since it (March, 1993) thought the restoration of democracy was an inevitable precondition for the freedom of the press.
FNJ did all it could to give a momentum to the popular movement. It not only strongly defied the attacks on press but also actively diversified the movement. It also played a remarkable role in drafting the present constitution.
In the sixteenth General Assembly of the Federation, held on Chaitra 9, 2049 BS, (March, 1993) in Biratnagar, Hom Nath Dahal was elected the President. He was succeeded by Harihar Birahi Baishakh 16, 2052 BS (May, 1996) in the seventeenth General Assembly held in Jhapa.
TRANSITION INTO A FEDERATION After the restoration of democracy, journalism field in Nepal found a completely new dimension. Accordingly its responsibility also increased along with the changed political situation.
Journalists could now organize themselves on the basis of subjects, principles etc. They were now endowed with an open environment. Different media and journalism related organisations began to spawn. With this, a necessity was felt for bringing all these organisations and media personnel under a single national umbrella. The number of journalists too had increased manifold after the restoration of democracy. District level branches of the Association (it was yet to evolve formally as a federation) were extensively established throughout the country. Later, it was thought that the time had finally come to develop the then Nepal Journalists Association into a Federation. The Central Committee introduced the concept of a Federation into the constitution of the Association. The Association was officially announced the Federation of Nepalese Journalists (FNJ) on Ashad 11, 2053 (June, 1996) at the presence of some of its founder members. All these were accomplished during the presidentship of Harihar Birahi. He is, therefore, regarded as the first President of the FNJ as it in recogniged today. changed Federation.
The annual meeting held in Dharan on Jestha 28 and 29 of 2053 BS endorsed the constitution of the Federation. Kishore Nepal was elected as the President of FNJ in its 18th General Assembly held on Bhadra 30, 2054 BS. Likewise, the 19th General Assembly held on 9 Mangshir 2056 BS had elected Suresh Acharya as the President. The author had the privilege of succeeding Mr Acharya after the 20th general Assembly held in May, 2002.
FNJ now has a 45 year old history and over the years it has passed through many ups and downs. But now it has evolved as a strong organization. So much so that its member branches have reached 60 and over 3500 journalists are now actively associated with it. It has already built its own office building in The Media Village established in joint cooperation with the Press Council. The process of building the offices of its district branches is on. This proves that FNJ is no more a commonplace NGO.
OBJECTIVES OF FNJ
i. To organize and unite the journalists working in different fields of mass media throughout the country, and provide them with professional leadership.
ii. To represent the interests of journalists and to preserve their rights.
iii. To develop responsible, accountable and disciplined journalism and thereby respect the principles of press liberty.
iv. To maintain friendly relationship with national and international media organizations and exchange representatives with them.
v. To conduct study, investigation, seminars, trainings, symposium etc. on subjects related to journalism.vi. To take other necessary steps for the betterment of journalism in Nepal.
ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE
After the Nepal Journalists Association adopted the nature of a Federation during Birahi's tenure, its structure too was naturally changed. The federation's constitution 2053 (First amendment, 2057) clearly describes its structure. According to it, President, General secretary, Secretary, Treasurer and 8 members can be elected by all the council members of the General Assembly of the Federation. There is also the provision of electing 3 members from associate members. Five vice-presidents are appointed in accordance with the development zone. The Representative of Central Council of the respective development zones are to elect the vice President. The constitution also lays down the provision of appointing 4 central members by the elected working committee.Along with this, there are 3 categories of members in the FNJ. regular members, associate members and honorary members. Except the honorary members others can vote or be the nominees in the respective process.The branches with general and associate membership can elect the representatives of central council at 5:1 or 20 percent ratio. These are the people who are allowed to take part in the central General Assembly of the Federation.
THE MAIN FUNCTION OF FNJ
FNJalways aspires to accomplish the objectives determined by its constitution. These are the basis of its functions. The foremost function of FNJ is to preserve and promote the freedom of the press in Nepal and to foster journalism as a whole. It also carries out different programs to promote professional journalism and protect the rights and privilleges of all occupational journalists. Maintaining the ethics of journalism is yet another grave responsibility of FNJ. It also conducts trainings in order to enhance the journalistic expertise of media personnel so that they can walk along with the international standard. Other than these, FNJ has always been pioneering in the formulation and implementation of policies related to mass media.
It has already been mentioned that the Federation of Nepali Journalists is the umbrella organization with representation of all sorts of journalists in Nepal. It is worth mentioning that FNJ is not only concerned with journalists, it is also equally attentive to the problems faced the concerned entrepreneurs. It also plays a role in sorting out the disputes in transmission, publicity distribution system, advertisement and so forth.
In a nutshell, FNJ plays the role of a Press Police by ensuring the well-being of the press personnel and also of the press entrpreneurs, by formulating press policies and upholding the principle of an independent press.
It is a matter of pride for the Nepali journalists that nowhere in the whole world exists such an organization that incorporates media men from every background of media-print, electronic and cyber. The development of such an organization that represents all the segments of media on a professional level is certainly a remarkable achievement.
Everyone concerned should be extremely sensitive toward making FNJ a common association for protecting the privileges of all Nepalese media personnel. This attitude will ensure and diversify the existence of FNJ forever.The office of FNJ is situated at Sanchar Gram, Tilganga, Which is near Kathmandu's Tribhuvan International Airport.
Main Agenda of FNJ:
Protection of Freedom of press and the freedom expression.
Implementation of working Journalists law
Formation of Right to Information Act
Implementation of code of conduct
Protection of journalists
Formation of new mass communication policy
Mobilization of press for social development
Formation of national Advertisement Policy and Program
Skill development of Journalists
Development of Media village
National policy for the smooth movement and distribution of the press materials and production
Interim constitution guarantees press freedom
The Interim Constitution 2007 of Nepal, under its preamble, has expressed commitment to "full freedom of press, independent of judiciary and concept of rule of law."
The Interim Constitution guarantees freedom of expression to every citizen under Fundamental Rights in Part 3. Article 12 (3) (a) freedom of opinion and expressionb. freedom to assemble peaceable and without armsc. freedom to form political party or organizationsd. freedom to form unions and associationsProvided that, Nothing in sub-clause (a)shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignity and intgrity of Nepal, or which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes, religion or communities, or on any act of defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or on any act which may be contrary to decent public behavior or morality.
Similarly, the Interim Constitution under Article 15 has guaranteed the following publication, broadcasting and press rights:
15. Right Regarding Publication, Broadcasting and Press: (1) No publication and broadcasting or printing of any news items, editorial, article, writings or other readings, audio-visual materials, by any means including electronic publication, braodcasting and press, shall be censored.
Provided that nothing shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignity or integrity of Nepal, or which may jeopardise the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities; or on any act of sedition, defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or on any act which may be contrary to decent public behaviour or morality.
(2) No radio, television, online or any other types of digital or electronic means, press or any other communication media shall be closed, seized or be cancelled the registration because of publishing and bradcasting or printing any material by such mens of audio, audio-visual or electronic equipments.
(3) No newspaper, periodical or press shall be closed, seized or be cancelled the registration for printing and publishing any news items, articles, editorial, writings or other reading materials.
(4) No communication means including press, electronic broadcasting and telephone shall be obstructed except in accordance with law.
27. Right to Information: (1) Every citizen shall have the right to demand or obtain information on any matters of his/her own or of public importance.
Provided that nothing shall compel any person to provide information on any matter about which secrecy is to be maintained by law.
28. Right to privacy: (1) Except on the circumstance as provided by law, the privacy of the person, residence, property, document, statistics, correspondence and character of anyone is inviolable.
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(Previous Constitution)The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal 1990 provides for the following fundamental rights and press freedom:-
PART 3
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
11. Right to Equality:
(1) All citizens shall be equal before the law. No person shall be denied the equal protection of the laws.
(2) No discrimination shall be made against any citizen in the application of general laws on grounds of religion (dharma), race (varya), sex (linga), caste (jât), tribe (jâti) or ideological conviction (vaicârik) or any of these.
(3) The State shall not discriminate among citizens on grounds of religion, race, sex, caste, tribe, or ideological conviction or any of these.
Provided that special provisions may be made by law for the protection and advancement of the interests of women, children, the aged or those who are physically or mentally incapacitated or those who belong to a class which is economically, socially or educationally backward.
(4) No person shall, on the basis of caste, be discriminated against as untouchable, be denied access to any public place, or be deprived of the use of public utilities. Any contravention of this provision shall be punishable by law.
(5) No discrimination in regard to remuneration shall be made between men and women for the same work.
12. Right to Freedom:
(1) No person shall be deprived of his personal liberty save in accordance with law, and no law shall be made which provides for capital punishment.
(2) All citizens shall have the following freedoms:
(a) freedom of opinion and expression;
(b) freedom to assemble peaceably and without arms;
(c) freedom to form unions and associations;
(d) freedom to move throughout the Kingdom and reside in any part thereof; and
(e) freedom to practise any profession, or to carry on any occupation, industry, or trade.
Provided that -
(1) nothing in sub-clause (a) shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignty and integrity of the Kingdom of Nepal, or which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities, or on any act of sedition, defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or on any act which may be contrary to decent public behaviour or morality;
(2) nothing in sub-clause (b) shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignty, integrity or law and order situation of the Kingdom of Nepal;
(3) nothing in sub-clause (c) shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignty and integrity of the Kingdom of Nepal, which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities, which may instigate violence, or which may be contrary to public morality;
(4) nothing in sub-clause (d) shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws which are in the interest of the general public, or which are made to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities;
(5) nothing in sub-clause (e) shall be deemed to prevent the making of laws to impose restriction on any act which may be contrary to public health or morality, to confer on the State the exclusive right to undertake specified industries, businesses or services; or to impose any condition or qualification for carrying on any industry, trade, profession or occupation.
13. Press and Publication Right:
(1) No news item, article or any other reading material shall be censored.
Provided that nothing shall prevent the making of laws to impose reasonable restrictions on any act which may undermine the sovereignty and integrity of the Kingdom of Nepal, or which may jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities; or on any act of sedition, defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or on any act against which may be contrary to decent public behaviour or morality.
(2) No press shall be closed or seized for printing any news item, article or other reading material.
(3) The registration of a newspaper or periodical shall not be canceled merely for publishing any news item, article or other reading material.
14. Right Regarding Criminal Justice:
(1) No person shall be punished for an act which was not punishable by law when the act was committed, nor shall any person be subjected to a punishment greater than that prescribed by the law in force at the time of the commission of the offence.
(2) No person shall be prosecuted or punished for the same offence in a court of law more than once.
(3) No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.
(4) No person who is detained during investigation or for trial or for any other reason shall be subjected to physical or mental torture, nor shall be given any cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. Any person so treated shall be compensated in a manner as determined by law.
(5) No person who is arrested shall be detained in custody without being informed, as soon as may be, of the grounds for such arrest, nor shall be denied the right to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of his choice.
Explanation: For the purpose of this clause, the words "legal practitioner" shall mean any person who is authorised by law to represent any person in any court.
(6) Every person who is arrested and detained in custody shall be produced before a judicial authority within a period of twenty-four hours after such arrest, excluding the time necessary for the journey from the place of arrest to such authority, and no such person shall be detained in custody beyond the said period except on the order of such authority.
(7) Nothing in clauses (5) and (6) shall apply to a citizen of an enemy state, and nothing in clause (6) shall apply to any person who is arrested or detained under any law providing for preventive detention.
15. Right against Preventive Detention:
(1) No person shall be held under preventive detention unless there is a sufficient ground of existence of an immediate threat to the sovereignty, integrity or law and order situation of the Kingdom of Nepal.
(2) Any person held under preventive detention shall, if his detention was contrary to law or in bad faith, have the right to be compensated in a manner as prescribed by law.
16. Right to Information:
Every citizen shall have the right to demand and receive information on any matter of public importance;
Provided that nothing in this Article shall compel any person to provide information on any matter about which secrecy is to be maintained by law.
17. Right to Property:
(1) All citizens shall, subject to the existing laws, have the right to acquire, own, sell and otherwise dispose of, property.
(2) The State shall not, except in the public interest, requisition, acquire or create any encumbrance on, the property of any person.
(3) The basis of compensation and procedure for giving compensation for any property requisitioned, acquired or encumbered by the State for in the public interest, shall be as prescribed by law.
18. Cultural and Educational Right:
(1) Each community residing within the Kingdom of Nepal shall have the right to preserve and promote its language, script and culture.
(2) Each community shall have the right to operate schools up to the primary level in its own mother tongue for imparting education to its children.
19. Right to Religion:
(1) Every person shall have the freedom to profess and practise his own religion as handed down to him from ancient times having due regard to traditional practices;
provided that no person shall be entitled to convert another person from one religion to another.[3]
(2) Every religious denomination shall have the right to maintain its independent existence and for this purpose to manage and protect its religious places and trusts.
20. Right against Exploitation:
(1) Traffic in human beings, slavery, serfdom or forced labour in any form is prohibited. Any contravention of this provision shall be punishable by law;
Provided that nothing herein shall be a bar to providing by law for compulsory service for public purposes.
(2) No minor shall be employed in work in any factory or mine, or be engaged in any other hazardous work.
21. Right against Exile:
No citizen shall be exiled.
22. Right to Privacy:
Except as provided by law, the privacy of the person, house, property, document, correspondence or information of anyone is inviolable.
23. Right to Constitutional Remedy:
The right to proceed in the manner set forth in Article 88 for the enforcement of the rights conferred by this Part is guaranteed.
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JOURNALIST CODE OF CONDUCT2003 (2060)
Preamble :
Whereas, it is expedient to revise the existing code of conduct by covering all means of mass media and adjusting timely international practices and norms, with a basic objective of safegaurding the freedoms and rights gauranteed by the Consitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 2047 (1990) and making the people well-informed, and making the mass media and the journalists more responsive towards the nation and the society, and avoiding misuses of the same, by protecting the freedom of press by means of making the mass media and the journalists responsible and professional for the development of healthy journalism;
Now, therefore, with the consent of the Nepal Journalist Federation, as well, this Journalist Code of Conduct, 2060 (2003) has been framed and enforced, pursuant to Section 7(b) of the Press Council Act.
1. Title, Commencement and Extension:
(1) This Code of Conduct may be cited as the "Journalist Code of Conduct, 2060 (2003)".
(2) This Code of Conduct shall commence forthwith.
(3) This Code of Conduct shall apply to all journalists and communication media working in the Kingdom of Nepal.
2. Unless the subject or the context otherwise requires, in this Code of Conduct,-
(a) "Journalist" means a media worker related with the profession of journalism such as a chief editor, editor, member of editorial board, correspondent, columnist, photo journalist, press cameraman, cartoonist, program producer and runner, costume, scene and language editor associated with activities such as collection, production, edition and transmission of news materials through communication media of any nature like printing, electronic and on-line means.
(b) "media" includes newspapers, radio and television broadcasts and internet news and thoughtfull on-line services operated in the Kingdom of Nepal.
(c) "Council" means the Press Council-Nepal.
3. The journalist and media shall perform the following duties:
(1) Protection and promotion of press freedom: Being freedom of opinion and expression a basic right of a citizen, to always remain firm, vigilant and alert for its protection and promotion.
(2) Recognition of human rights and international relations: To enhance protection and promotion of democracy, justice, equality peace and international collaboration and fraternity among friendly nations, while at the same time recognizing rights, interests, principles, norms and practices guaranteed by human rights related international instruments.
(3) Safeguard and enforcement of the right to information: To always remain active and dedicated to safeguard the right of the people to be well-informed.
(4) Imparting true and factual informaiton: To impart true, factual, impartial as well as balanced information in order to achive the goal of professional journalism.
(5) Editorial freedom: A journalist should have responsibility and accountability for production and impartation of the materials published-broadcast in the media.
(6) Recognition of right to privacy : To recognize personal and professional secrecy except in cases where it causes adverse impact on the public interest.
(7) High professional practice : To exercise high professional practice in order to carry out responsibility, accountability and reliability, being dedicated to the basic norms and principles of journalism.
(8) Decent behavement: To remain alert for moral, courteous and decent working style and language, while at the same time recognizing social decency in professional practice.
(9) Readiness to rectify errors: Upon information of any error or mistake in publication and broadcast, to rectify such error or mistake as soon as possible, and to give proper place for a refusal or dinial or response, accompanied by evidence, and publish-broadcast the same in clear language.
(10) Social responsibility: Social responsibility shall be to render special assistance through flow of information and opinions in the upliftment and development of the disabled, helpless, incapacitated, children, women and backward class, sector, nationalities and minor communities.
(11) Mutual relationship among journalists and media should be professional, healthy, tempered, courteous and harmonious.
4. The journalist and media shall not carry out the following acts:
(1) Not to undermine national integrity: Not to publish and broadcast any news and opinion that may undermine the sovereignty and integrity of the multiethnic, multilingual and multireligious Kingdom of Nepal or jeopardize the harmonious relations subsisting among the peoples of various castes, tribes or communities or contain act of defamation or contempt of court or be contrary to decent public behaviour or morality.
(2) Not to adversely affect social structure : Not to publish and broadcast such deformed and provocative materials as may cause adverse impacts on the social structure and be contrary to professional dignity.
(3) Not to disclose secret source of news: To quote source in presenting any news for the authenticity and reliability of the news; but protecting such secret source being a duty of the journalist, to keep secret the name and identification of such source, except in cases of permission by the source.
(4) Not to use for fulfillment of personal interest: Not to use any information materials, obtained for publication-broadcast of the same, for fulfillment of personal interest.
(5) Not to flow information in a discriminatory manner: Not to flow or impart any news and opinion in such a manner as to discriminate on such grounds as of race, sex, religion, region, language and color.
(6) Not to flow information in a manner to make victim suffer further pain: Not to publish broadcast any news and opinion through the use of language, picture, figure and scene, as well, in such a manner as as to make the victim suffer further pain.
(7) Not to publish name, address and identification of a victim: Not to publish broadcast any news, picture and scene in such a manner as a disclose the name, address and identification of a victim with regard to a sexual crime or social disregard or any hateful event or context.
(8) Not to encourage violence, terrorism and crime: Not to present any news, opinion, picture and scene in a manner to encourage disruption, violence, terrorism and crime and to exaggerate such activity.
(9) Not to publish and broadcast naked scene and picture in a manner to spread out hatred and provocation: Not to publish any hurt, naked and hatred provoking scene and picture in a manner to spread out nakedness and provocation and not to be contextual.
(10) Not to mention name of the person not related with event: In publishing-broadcasting any news related with any event, not to present such news in a manner to undermine dignity or defame character of a relative or intimate person not related with the event, by attaching the name of such relative or person to such event.
(11) Not to publish unfactual news: Not to distort the fact, confuse for undue benefit, and publish a factless remark as news.
(12) Not to present advertisement as news: Neither to present an advertisement as news nor to refute news by way of advertisement; and a communication media shall not generally refute any news published and broadcast in another media.
(13) Not to use without quoting source: In using any news materials communicated by any news agency or media, not to publish or broadcast the same without quoting such original source.
5. Complaint and complaint procedures:
1) A victim may file a complaint with the council against any journalist and media within the time-limit referred to in sub-section (4), accompanied by factual evidence showing violation of the conducts mentioned in this Code of Conduct. If such a complaint is filed and the Council thinks, upon holding general inquiry, that any act has been done in violation of this Code of Conduct, the Council shall send summons, accompanied by a copy of the complaint, to the accused party, requiring that party to make presence along with evidence, if any, showing innocence, generally within seven days or within such time-limit before seven days as the Council may think fit.
2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), if any journalist or media publishes and broadcasts any news in a maner to cause negative impacts directly or indirectly on the public interest and concern. The Council may on its own initiate action against such journalist or media, pursuant to this Code of Conduct.
3) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), the Council may, after general inquiry as to the complaint and before sending the summons to the accused party, give the concerned journalist or media such necessary direction as to immediately refute the news or beg a pardon or send reasonable reply.
4) If a complaint on publication and broadcast of any news by a journalist and media in violation of this Code of Conduct is not filed within fifteen days of publication and broadcast of such news, such a complain shall not lie. If there is any resonable reason for failing to file a complaint within the time-limit, the Council may entertain a complaint at any time.
5) After a written response has been filed with the Council by the accused party under the above mentioned sub-sections or despite that no response is filed within the specified time-limit, the council shall make decision on that matter within twenty days in general.
6) Prior to making a decision pursuant to sub-section (5), the Council may, if it thinks necessary, summon presence of both the complainant and the accused party and hold discussions between them.
7) If the complainant and the accused party reach a compromise and make a joint request in writing for compromise, the Council may execute compromise and settle the dispute.
6. Provision on Decision and Enforcement
If any party is held to have committed a conduct prohibited by clause (b) of Section 3 of this Code of Conduct, the Council shall make decision and take action as follows in a respective manner:-
1) The Council shall order the concerned media to publish and broadcast the decision made on the complaint in such form, place and time as may be specified by the Council.
2) If the accused party does not carry out the order given under sub-section (1), the Council shall make recommendation to the concerned body to suspend the press pass of such party if that party holds such pass.
3) If the accused party does not act under sub-section (1) even after suspension of the press pass pursuant to sub-section (2), the distribution verification committee of the Council shall remove the media of such party from evaluation process.
4) If the party does not observe the decision referred to in sub-section (1) even after removing from the evaluation process pursuant to sub-section (3) above, not assistance shall be provided to such party from the welfare fund of the Council.
5) If the party does not carry out the act directed under sub-section (1) even after cutting out assistance from the welfare fund pursuant to sub-section (4), the Council shall make recommendation to the concerned body to suspend the facilities to be provided by His Majesty's Government, for a certain period.
Provided, however, that the Council may, if it thinks necessary, take both actions referred to in sub-sections (4) and (5) at the same time.
6) The Council shall express regret over the journalist and media failing to carry out any decision of the Council and publish boardcast this matter publicly.
7. Repeal :
The Journalist Code of Conduct, 2055 is hereby repealed.
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The National Broadcasting Act, 1993
Date of Royal Assent and Publication2050.2.27.4 (Wednesday, 9 June 1993)
The Act Amending Some Nepal Acts Relating to Communications, 2057 (2000)
2057.10.18 (Jan. 31, 2001)
Act number 6 of the year 2049 (1993)
An Act made to provide for national broadcasting
Preamble:
Whereas, in order to protect and promote the freedom of expression and the right to be informed guaranteed to the people by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 2047 (1990), and to raise public awareness also through the language of the nation as well as national languages by creating an environment of equality, mutual good faith, and harmony amongst all the tribes, languages, classes, regions and religious denominations by imparting economic, social and cultural activities of the country to the people through the broadcasting system, it is expedient to make legal provisions on the broadcasting , without any obstruction, of the flow of information in order that the general public get informed about impartial as well as authentic news and information taking place at the national and international level, by making the broadcasting media reliable, effective and strong, with the use of modern technology available in the field of information and communications;
Now, therefore, be it enacted by Parliament in the twenty-second year of the reign of His Majesty the King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev.
1. Short title and commencement :
(1) This Act may be cited as the "National Broadcasting Act, 2049 (1993)"
(2) This Act shall come into force forthwith.
2. Definitions : Unless the subject or the context otherwise requires, in this Act, -
(a) "Broadcasting " means the radio communication service to be so sent through signal, sound, image, picture or similar other way that the general public may get information.
(b) "Program" means any kind of program to be broadcast through audio or audio-visual means.
(c) "Frequency modulation broadcasting system" means a broadcasting made for the radio or television technology, by a broadcasting institution through the prescribed channel by using the frequency modulation broadcasting system.
(d) "License" means the broadcasting license to be issued pursuant to Section 6 for broadcasting any program or the license to be issued for broadcasting by establishing the frequency modulation broadcasting system.
(e) "Broadcasting institution" means a person or body corporate having obtained the license to broadcast programs under this Act.
(f) "Satellite" means the satellite placed in the space in order to obtain various broadcasting materials or send them elsewhere.
(g) "Cable" means the technology by which broadcasting materials are sent to various customers, members or consumers by wire from any certain broadcasting station.
(h) "Earth station" means a station to be established in the earth surface in order to exchange broadcasting programs through satellite.
(i) "Broadcaster" means a person reading out a program to be broadcast by a broadcasting institution, and this term also includes a person who composes and edits such program.
(j) "Prescribed” or “as prescribed" means prescribed or as prescribed in the Rules framed under this Act.
3. Supervision and operation of programs relating to broadcasting: His Majesty's Government shall have the powers to formulate policies on supervision and operation of programs relating to broadcasting within the Kingdom of Nepal.
4. Prohibition on broadcasting without license: No one shall broadcast any program without obtaining the license pursuant to this Act.
5. Application for license: Any person or body corporate who intends to broadcast any program by way of satellite, cable or other means of communication or to broadcast any didactic, entertaining and informative programs by establishing the frequency modulation broadcasting system in any place within the Kingdom of Nepal shall submit to His Majesty's Government an application in such format and accompanied by such fee as prescribed.
6. Issuance of license: Upon receipt of an application referred to in Section 5, His Majesty's Government may, holding necessary inquiry into the application, issue the license, in the prescribed format, for broadcasting a program, subject to observance of the prescribed terms.
7. Powers to prevent broadcasting: Taking into account of the nation and national interest, His Majesty's Government may, by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette, prevent any program pertaining to any particular subject, event or area from being broadcast by a broadcasting institution, for a period not exceeding six months at a time.
8. Power to cancel license of broadcasting institution: (1) If any broadcasting institution broadcasts any program in contravention of this Act or the Rules framed hereunder, His Majesty's Government may cancel the license obtained by such broadcasting institution.
(2) Prior to cancellation of the license under sub-section (1), His Majesty's Government shall give a reasonable opportunity to such broadcasting institution to defend itself.
9. Special provisions on establishment of earth station: (1) Any person or corporate body, or a native and foreign person or corporate body in joint investment, who intends to broadcast any program by establishing the earth station relating to satellite and cable television, has to submit an application to His Majesty's Government for permission.
(2) Upon receipt of an application referred to in sub-section (1), His Majesty's Government may, if, following necessary inquiry into that application, it deems reasonable to give permission to the applicant to broadcast any program by establishing the earth station relating to satellite and cable television, issue permission, as prescribed, to broadcast the prescribed programs, subject to observance of the prescribed terms.
(3) Other provisions on the establishment of the earth station and broadcasting shall be as prescribed.
10. Broadcasting and distribution fee: If a broadcasting institution intends to distribute and operate any program, the fees to be paid to His Majesty's Government or the prescribed organization and the fees to be collected from the persons or bodies using such program shall be as prescribed.
11. Production and broadcasting of programs: While producing and broadcasting any program, a broadcasting institution has to give priority to the following matters:-
(a) Development-oriented programs such as agriculture, education, industry, commerce, science and technology, health, family planning and forest and environment protection,
(b) Such kinds of programs as to enhance equality, mutual good faith and harmony amongst all the tribes, languages, classes, areas and religious denominations,
(c) Programs that contribute to the upliftment of various languages and cultures of Nepal,
(d) Programs on such subjects as may enhance the national interest and national unity,
(e) Programs on such subjects as may raise national consciousness and moral awareness,
(f) Such kinds of programs as to raise social consciousness and develop democratic values, norms and culture in the people,
(g) Programs on such subjects as may not cause adverse impact on the relations between Nepal and neighboring countries as well as friendly countries,
(h) Programs relating to the foreign policy pursued by the country,
(i) Programs promoting folk songs and folk cultures,
(j) Important activities happening or taking place at the national and international level.
12. Participation of private sector in production and broadcasting of program: In addition to the public sector, the private sector may also be got involved so as to make any programs fair, simple, efficient and effective.
13. Provision of time to foreign broadcasting institution or communication media: If any foreign broadcasting institutions or communication media intend to get any program broadcast by a broadcasting institution, time may be provided to broadcast any didactic, entertaining and informative programs, based on the prescribed standards, without causing any adverse impact on the national interest.
14. Provision of time to broadcast advertisement: If any person intends to get any advertisement on publicity of any matter broadcast to the general public, time may be provided for broadcasting that advertisement, by collecting the prescribed fee from such person, institution or body.
Provided, however, that the broadcasting of advertisement of substances, such as smoking and liquors, causing harm to the public health shall be discouraged.
15. Prohibition on broadcasting of advertisement: (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in Section 14, no one shall broadcast, or cause to be broadcast, any advertisement of the following matters:-
(a) Matters adversely affecting political parties,
(b) Materials of vulgar type,
(c) Materials with object to oust the elected government by using violent force;
(d) Matters of such a nature as to create unusual fear and terror in the general public,
(e) Matters contrary to the non-aligned foreign policy of Nepal,
(f) Materials misinterpreting disregarding, insulting and devaluing any tribe, language, religion and culture.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), nothing contained in this Section shall be deemed to prevent His Majesty's Government, in consultation with the Election Commission, from allowing any political party to give information about matters such as manifesto, program or philosophy of such party, at the time of election.
16. Functions, duties and powers of broadcaster: The functions, duties and powers of the broadcaster shall be as follows: -
(a) To have necessary investigation as to the truth of the information, news, articles or programs received by him and broadcast, or cause to broadcast, them at the specified time,
(b) To edit and broadcast, or cause to be edited and broadcast, the news by being politically neutral,
(c) Not to broadcast, nor cause to be broadcast, such kinds of programs as may undermine public security, moral and social decency,
(d) Not to broadcast, nor cause to be broadcast, any matters recklessly or negligently,
(e) Even if broadcasting is to be made about any debatable matter, to broadcast it by analyzing it from all viewpoints to the extent possible, and without twisting the state of affairs,
(f) Not to collect and broadcast false and illusive news,
(g) To carry out such other functions as specified by the broadcasting institution.
17. Punishment: (1) If any person broadcasts, or causes to be broadcast, any program without obtaining the license of broadcasting institution pursuant to Section 6 or without obtaining permission pursuant to Section 9, such person shall be punished, by order of the prescribed authority, with a fine of a sum equal to the license and permission letter fee and the charge as referred to in Section 10, by recovering such fee and charge ten [1] or with imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or with both punishments.
(2) If any person broadcasts, or causes to be broadcast, any program in contravention of this Act or the Rules framed hereunder or commits, or causes to be committed, any act in contravention of this Act or the Rules framed hereunder, the prescribed authority may punish such broadcasting institution, broadcaster or other related person with a fine not exceeding ten thousand rupees or with imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or with both punishments.
18. Appeal: Any person who is not satisfied with any order or punished made or imposed by His Majesty's Government or the prescribed authority may file an appeal to the concerned Appellate Court within thirty-five days.
19. Security of broadcasting institution: If His Majesty's Government thinks that there is a likelihood of any kind of loss or damage to a broadcasting institution because of a riot or unrest, it may arrange for security by sending security force to that place for such period as it may think necessary.
20. Delegation of powers: His Majesty's Government may delegate any or all of the powers conferred on it by this Act to any authority or body.
21. Powers to frame Rules: His Majesty's Government may frame necessary Rules in order to implement the objectives of this Act.
22. Prevalence of prevailing law: The matters contained in this Act shall be governed by this Act, and the other matters shall be governed by the prevailing law.
23. Saving: Notwithstanding anything contained elsewhere in this Act, a body corporate fully or partly owned by His Majesty's Government established prior to the commencement of this Act shall be deemed to have obtained the license of broadcasting institution under this Act.
[1] Amended by the Act Amending Some Nepal Acts Relating to Communications, 2057 (2000).
Monday, April 13, 2009
communication theory
Communication Framework
There is much discussion in the academic world of communication as to what actually constitutes communication. Currently, many definitions of communication are used in order to conceptualize the processes by which people navigate and assign meaning. Communication is also understood at the exchanging of understanding.
Other commentators suggest that a ritual process of communication exists, one not artificially divorceable from a particular historical and social context.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Currently, there is no paradigm from which communication scholars may work. One of the issues facing scholars is the possibility that establishing a communication metatheory will negate their research and stifle the broad body of knowledge in which communication functions.
Communication theory framework
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication to be a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called "contexts" or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism. While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
Defining Communication Theories
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Cognitive Dissonance Theory argues that the experience of dissonance (or incompatible beliefs and actions) is aversive and people are highly motivated to avoid it. In their efforts to avoid feelings of dissonance, people will avoid hearing views that oppose their own, change their beliefs to match their actions, and seek reassurance after making a difficult decision.
Communication Accommodation Theory
This theoretical perspective examines the underlying motivations and consequences of what happens when two speakers shift their communication styles. Communication Accommodation theorists argue that during communication, people will try to accommodate or adjust their style of speaking to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and convergence. Groups with strong ethnic or racial pride often use divergence to highlight group identity. Convergence occurs when there is a strong need for social approval, frequently from powerless individuals.
Coordinated Management of Meaning
Theorists in Coordinated Management of Meaning believe that in conversation, people co-create meaning by attaining some coherence and coordination. Coherence occurs when stories are told, and coordination exists when stories are lived. CMM focuses on the relationship between an individual and his or her society. Through a hierarchical structure, individuals come to organize the meaning of literally hundreds of messages received throughout a day.
Cultivation Analysis
This theory argues that television (and other media) plays an extremely important role in how people view their world. According to Cultivation Analysis, in modern Culture most people get much of their information in a mediated fashion rather than through direct experience. Thus, mediated sources can shape people’s sense of reality. This is especially the case with regard to violence, according to the theory. Cultivation Analysis posits that heavy television viewing cultivates a sense of the world that is more violent and scarier than is actually warranted.
Cultural Approach to Organizations
The Cultural Approach contends that people are like animals who are suspended in webs that they created. Theorists in this tradition argue that an organization’s culture is composed of shared symbols, each of which has a unique meaning. Organizational stories, rituals, and rites of passage are examples of what constitutes the culture of an organization.
Cultural Studies
Theorists in cultural studies maintain that the media represents ideologies of the dominant class in a society. Because media are controlled by corporations, the information presented to the public is necessarily influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influence and how power plays a role in the interpretation of culture.
Dramatism
This theoretical position compares life to a drama. As in dramatic action, life requires an actor, a scene, an act, some means for the action to take place, and a purpose. A rhetorical critic can understand a speaker’s motives by analyzing these elements. Further, Dramatism argues that purging guilt is the ultimate motive, and rhetors can be successful when they provide their audiences with a means for purging their guilt and a sense of identification with the rhetor.
Expectancy Violations Theory
Expectancy Violation Theory examines how nonverbal messages are structured. The theory advances that when communicative norms are violated, the violation may be perceived either favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception that the receiver has of the violator. Violating another’s expectations may be a strategy used over that of conforming to another’s expectations.
Face-Negotiation TheoryFace
Negotiation Theory is concerned with how people in individualistic and collectivistic cultures negotiate face in conflict situations. The theory is based on face management, which describes how people from different cultures manage conflict negotiation in order to maintain face. Self-face and other-face concerns explain the conflict negotiation between people from various cultures.
Groupthink
The groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive groups fail to consider alternatives that may effectively resolve group dilemmas. Groupthink theorists contend that group members frequently think similarly and are reluctant to share unpopular or dissimilar ideas with others. When this occurs, groups prematurely make decisions, some of which can have lasting consequences.
Muted Group Theory
Muted Group Theory maintains that language serves men better than women (and perhaps European Americans better than African Americans or other groups). This is the case because the variety of experiences of European American men are named clearly in language, whereas the experiences of other groups (such as women) are not. Due to this problem with language, women appear less articulate than men in public settings. As women have similar experiences, this situation should change.
The Narrative Paradigm
This theory argues that humans are storytelling animals. The Narrative Paradigm proposes a narrative logic to replace the traditional logic of argument. Narrative logic, or the logic of good reasons, suggests that people judge the credibility of speakers by whether their stories hang together clearly (coherence and whether their stories ring true (fidelity). The Narrative Paradigm allows for a democratic judgment of speakers because no one has to be trained in oratory and persuasion to make judgments based on coherence and fidelity.
Organizational Information Theory
This Theory argues that the main activity of organizations is the process of making sense of equivocal information. Organizational members accomplish this sense-making process through enactment, selection, and retention of information. Organizations are successful to the extent that they are able to reduce equivocality through these means.
Relational Dialectics Theory
Relational Dialectics suggests that relational life is always in process. People in relationships continually feel the pull-push of conflicting desires. Basically, people wish to have both autonomy and connection, openness and protective-ness, and novelty and predictability. As people communicate in relationships, they attempt to reconcile these conflicting desires, but they never eliminate their needs for both of the opposing pairs.
The Rhetoric
Rhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. That is, a speaker who is interested in persuading his or her audience should consider three rhetorical proofs: logical, emotional, and ethical. Audiences are key to effective persuasion as well. Rhetorical syllogism, requiring audiences to supply missing pieces of a speech, are also used in persuasion.
Social Exchange Theory
This theoretical position argues that the major force in interpersonal relationships is the satisfaction of both people’s self-interest. Theorists in Social Exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchanges as analogous to economic exchanges where people are satisfied when they receive a fair return on their expenditures.
Social Penetration Theory
This theory maintains that interpersonal relationships evolve in some gradual and predictable fashion. Penetration theorists believe that self-disclosure is the primary way that superficial relationships progress to intimate relationships. Although self-disclosure can lead to more intimate relationships, it can also leave one or more persons vulnerable.
Spiral of Silence Theory
Theorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous power, the mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion. The theory maintains that mass media work simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs on cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the beliefs of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to conform to what they perceive to be a majority view.
Standpoint Theory
This theory posits that people are situated in specific social standpoints-they occupy different places in the social hierarchy. Because of this, individuals view the social situation from particular vantage points. By necessity, each vantage point provides only a partial understanding of the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social situation more fully than those at the top. Sometimes, Standpoint Theory is referred to as Feminist Standpoint Theory because of its application to how women’s and men’s standpoint differ.
Structuration Theory
Theorists supporting the structurational perspective argue that groups and organizations create structures, which can be interpreted as an organization’s rules and resources. These structures, in turn, create social systems in an organization. Structuration theorists posit that groups and organizations achieve a life of their own because of the way their members utilize their structures. Power structures guide the decision making taking place in groups and organizations.
Symbolic Interaction TheoryThis theory suggests that people are motivated to act based on the meanings they assign to people, things, and events. Further, meaning is created in the language that people use both with others and in private thought. Language allows people to develop a sense of self and to interact with others in community.
Uncertainly Reduction Theory
Uncertainty Reduction Theory suggests that when strangers meet, their primary focus is on reducing their levels of uncertainty in the situation. Their levels of uncertainty are located in both behavioral and cognitive realms. That is, they may be unsure of how to behave (or how the other person will behave), and they may also be unsure what they think of the other and what the other person thinks of them. Further, people’s uncertainty is both individual level and relational level. People are highly motivated to use communication to reduce their uncertainty according to this theory.
Uses and Gratifications Theory
Uses and Gratifications theorists explain why people choose and use certain media forms. The theory emphasizes a limited effect position; that is, the media have a limithe effect on their audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media. Uses and Gratifications Theory attempts to answer the following: What do people do with the media?
There is much discussion in the academic world of communication as to what actually constitutes communication. Currently, many definitions of communication are used in order to conceptualize the processes by which people navigate and assign meaning. Communication is also understood at the exchanging of understanding.
Other commentators suggest that a ritual process of communication exists, one not artificially divorceable from a particular historical and social context.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably cannot yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Currently, there is no paradigm from which communication scholars may work. One of the issues facing scholars is the possibility that establishing a communication metatheory will negate their research and stifle the broad body of knowledge in which communication functions.
Communication theory framework
It is helpful to examine communication and communication theory through one of the following viewpoints:
Mechanistic: This view considers communication to be a perfect transaction of a message from the sender to the receiver. (as seen in the diagram above)
Psychological: This view considers communication as the act of sending a message to a receiver, and the feelings and thoughts of the receiver upon interpreting the message.
Social Constructionist (Symbolic Interactionist): This view considers communication to be the product of the interactants sharing and creating meaning.
Systemic: This view considers communication to be the new messages created via “through-put”, or what happens as the message is being interpreted and re-interpreted as it travels through people.
Mapping the theoretical landscape
A discipline gets defined in large part by its theoretical structure. Communication studies often borrow theories from other social sciences. This theoretical variation makes it difficult to come to terms with the field as a whole. That said, some common taxonomies exist that serve to divide up the range of communication research. Two common mappings involve contexts and assumptions.
Contexts
Many authors and researchers divide communication by what they sometimes called "contexts" or "levels", but which more often represent institutional histories. The study of communication in the US, while occurring within departments of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology (among others), generally developed from schools of rhetoric and from schools of journalism. While many of these have become "departments of communication", they often retain their historical roots, adhering largely to theories from speech communication in the former case, and from mass media in the latter. The great divide between speech communication and mass communication becomes complicated by a number of smaller sub-areas of communication research, including intercultural and international communication, small group communication, communication technology, policy and legal studies of communication, telecommunication, and work done under a variety of other labels. Some of these departments take a largely social-scientific perspective, others tend more heavily toward the humanities, and still others gear themselves more toward production and professional preparation.
These "levels" of communication provide some way of grouping communication theories, but inevitably, some theories and concepts leak from one area to another, or fail to find a home at all.
Defining Communication Theories
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Cognitive Dissonance Theory argues that the experience of dissonance (or incompatible beliefs and actions) is aversive and people are highly motivated to avoid it. In their efforts to avoid feelings of dissonance, people will avoid hearing views that oppose their own, change their beliefs to match their actions, and seek reassurance after making a difficult decision.
Communication Accommodation Theory
This theoretical perspective examines the underlying motivations and consequences of what happens when two speakers shift their communication styles. Communication Accommodation theorists argue that during communication, people will try to accommodate or adjust their style of speaking to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and convergence. Groups with strong ethnic or racial pride often use divergence to highlight group identity. Convergence occurs when there is a strong need for social approval, frequently from powerless individuals.
Coordinated Management of Meaning
Theorists in Coordinated Management of Meaning believe that in conversation, people co-create meaning by attaining some coherence and coordination. Coherence occurs when stories are told, and coordination exists when stories are lived. CMM focuses on the relationship between an individual and his or her society. Through a hierarchical structure, individuals come to organize the meaning of literally hundreds of messages received throughout a day.
Cultivation Analysis
This theory argues that television (and other media) plays an extremely important role in how people view their world. According to Cultivation Analysis, in modern Culture most people get much of their information in a mediated fashion rather than through direct experience. Thus, mediated sources can shape people’s sense of reality. This is especially the case with regard to violence, according to the theory. Cultivation Analysis posits that heavy television viewing cultivates a sense of the world that is more violent and scarier than is actually warranted.
Cultural Approach to Organizations
The Cultural Approach contends that people are like animals who are suspended in webs that they created. Theorists in this tradition argue that an organization’s culture is composed of shared symbols, each of which has a unique meaning. Organizational stories, rituals, and rites of passage are examples of what constitutes the culture of an organization.
Cultural Studies
Theorists in cultural studies maintain that the media represents ideologies of the dominant class in a society. Because media are controlled by corporations, the information presented to the public is necessarily influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media influence and how power plays a role in the interpretation of culture.
Dramatism
This theoretical position compares life to a drama. As in dramatic action, life requires an actor, a scene, an act, some means for the action to take place, and a purpose. A rhetorical critic can understand a speaker’s motives by analyzing these elements. Further, Dramatism argues that purging guilt is the ultimate motive, and rhetors can be successful when they provide their audiences with a means for purging their guilt and a sense of identification with the rhetor.
Expectancy Violations Theory
Expectancy Violation Theory examines how nonverbal messages are structured. The theory advances that when communicative norms are violated, the violation may be perceived either favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception that the receiver has of the violator. Violating another’s expectations may be a strategy used over that of conforming to another’s expectations.
Face-Negotiation TheoryFace
Negotiation Theory is concerned with how people in individualistic and collectivistic cultures negotiate face in conflict situations. The theory is based on face management, which describes how people from different cultures manage conflict negotiation in order to maintain face. Self-face and other-face concerns explain the conflict negotiation between people from various cultures.
Groupthink
The groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive groups fail to consider alternatives that may effectively resolve group dilemmas. Groupthink theorists contend that group members frequently think similarly and are reluctant to share unpopular or dissimilar ideas with others. When this occurs, groups prematurely make decisions, some of which can have lasting consequences.
Muted Group Theory
Muted Group Theory maintains that language serves men better than women (and perhaps European Americans better than African Americans or other groups). This is the case because the variety of experiences of European American men are named clearly in language, whereas the experiences of other groups (such as women) are not. Due to this problem with language, women appear less articulate than men in public settings. As women have similar experiences, this situation should change.
The Narrative Paradigm
This theory argues that humans are storytelling animals. The Narrative Paradigm proposes a narrative logic to replace the traditional logic of argument. Narrative logic, or the logic of good reasons, suggests that people judge the credibility of speakers by whether their stories hang together clearly (coherence and whether their stories ring true (fidelity). The Narrative Paradigm allows for a democratic judgment of speakers because no one has to be trained in oratory and persuasion to make judgments based on coherence and fidelity.
Organizational Information Theory
This Theory argues that the main activity of organizations is the process of making sense of equivocal information. Organizational members accomplish this sense-making process through enactment, selection, and retention of information. Organizations are successful to the extent that they are able to reduce equivocality through these means.
Relational Dialectics Theory
Relational Dialectics suggests that relational life is always in process. People in relationships continually feel the pull-push of conflicting desires. Basically, people wish to have both autonomy and connection, openness and protective-ness, and novelty and predictability. As people communicate in relationships, they attempt to reconcile these conflicting desires, but they never eliminate their needs for both of the opposing pairs.
The Rhetoric
Rhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. That is, a speaker who is interested in persuading his or her audience should consider three rhetorical proofs: logical, emotional, and ethical. Audiences are key to effective persuasion as well. Rhetorical syllogism, requiring audiences to supply missing pieces of a speech, are also used in persuasion.
Social Exchange Theory
This theoretical position argues that the major force in interpersonal relationships is the satisfaction of both people’s self-interest. Theorists in Social Exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal exchanges as analogous to economic exchanges where people are satisfied when they receive a fair return on their expenditures.
Social Penetration Theory
This theory maintains that interpersonal relationships evolve in some gradual and predictable fashion. Penetration theorists believe that self-disclosure is the primary way that superficial relationships progress to intimate relationships. Although self-disclosure can lead to more intimate relationships, it can also leave one or more persons vulnerable.
Spiral of Silence Theory
Theorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their enormous power, the mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion. The theory maintains that mass media work simultaneously with Majority public opinion to silence minority beliefs on cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts those with minority views to examine the beliefs of others. Individuals who fear being socially isolated are prone to conform to what they perceive to be a majority view.
Standpoint Theory
This theory posits that people are situated in specific social standpoints-they occupy different places in the social hierarchy. Because of this, individuals view the social situation from particular vantage points. By necessity, each vantage point provides only a partial understanding of the social whole. Yet, those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social situation more fully than those at the top. Sometimes, Standpoint Theory is referred to as Feminist Standpoint Theory because of its application to how women’s and men’s standpoint differ.
Structuration Theory
Theorists supporting the structurational perspective argue that groups and organizations create structures, which can be interpreted as an organization’s rules and resources. These structures, in turn, create social systems in an organization. Structuration theorists posit that groups and organizations achieve a life of their own because of the way their members utilize their structures. Power structures guide the decision making taking place in groups and organizations.
Symbolic Interaction TheoryThis theory suggests that people are motivated to act based on the meanings they assign to people, things, and events. Further, meaning is created in the language that people use both with others and in private thought. Language allows people to develop a sense of self and to interact with others in community.
Uncertainly Reduction Theory
Uncertainty Reduction Theory suggests that when strangers meet, their primary focus is on reducing their levels of uncertainty in the situation. Their levels of uncertainty are located in both behavioral and cognitive realms. That is, they may be unsure of how to behave (or how the other person will behave), and they may also be unsure what they think of the other and what the other person thinks of them. Further, people’s uncertainty is both individual level and relational level. People are highly motivated to use communication to reduce their uncertainty according to this theory.
Uses and Gratifications Theory
Uses and Gratifications theorists explain why people choose and use certain media forms. The theory emphasizes a limited effect position; that is, the media have a limithe effect on their audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media. Uses and Gratifications Theory attempts to answer the following: What do people do with the media?
Sunday, April 12, 2009
Globalization
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world.
Globalization is not new, though. For thousands of years, people—and, later, corporations—have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle Ages. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalization are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred increases in cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many observers believe the world has entered a qualitatively new phase in its economic development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has increased by 20 times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment nearly doubled, from $468 billion to $827 billion. Distinguishing this current wave of globalization from earlier ones, author Thomas Friedman has said that today globalization is “farther, faster, cheaper, and deeper.”
This current wave of globalization has been driven by policies that have opened economies domestically and internationally. In the years since the Second World War, and especially during the past two decades, many governments have adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential and creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and investment. Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to commerce and have established international agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and investment.
Taking advantage of new opportunities in foreign markets, corporations have built foreign factories and established production and marketing arrangements with foreign partners. A defining feature of globalization, therefore, is an international industrial and financial business structure.
Technology has been the other principal driver of globalization. Advances in information technology, in particular, have dramatically transformed economic life. Information technologies have given all sorts of individual economic actors—consumers, investors, businesses—valuable new tools for identifying and pursuing economic opportunities, including faster and more informed analyses of economic trends around the world, easy transfers of assets, and collaboration with far-flung partners.
Globalization is deeply controversial, however. Proponents of globalization argue that it allows poor countries and their citizens to develop economically and raise their standards of living, while opponents of globalization claim that the creation of an unfettered international free market has benefited multinational corporations in the Western world at the expense of local enterprises, local cultures, and common people. Resistance to globalization has therefore taken shape both at a popular and at a governmental level as people and governments try to manage the flow of capital, labor, goods, and ideas that constitute the current wave of globalization.
To find the right balance between benefits and costs associated with globalization, citizens of all nations need to understand how globalization works and the policy choices facing them and their societies. Globalization101.org tries to provide an accurate analysis of the issues and controversies regarding globalization, especially to high-school and college students, without the slogans or ideological biases generally found in discussions of the topics. We welcome you to our website.
Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world.
Globalization is not new, though. For thousands of years, people—and, later, corporations—have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle Ages. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries. In fact, many of the features of the current wave of globalization are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred increases in cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many observers believe the world has entered a qualitatively new phase in its economic development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world trade has increased by 20 times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment nearly doubled, from $468 billion to $827 billion. Distinguishing this current wave of globalization from earlier ones, author Thomas Friedman has said that today globalization is “farther, faster, cheaper, and deeper.”
This current wave of globalization has been driven by policies that have opened economies domestically and internationally. In the years since the Second World War, and especially during the past two decades, many governments have adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their own productive potential and creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and investment. Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to commerce and have established international agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and investment.
Taking advantage of new opportunities in foreign markets, corporations have built foreign factories and established production and marketing arrangements with foreign partners. A defining feature of globalization, therefore, is an international industrial and financial business structure.
Technology has been the other principal driver of globalization. Advances in information technology, in particular, have dramatically transformed economic life. Information technologies have given all sorts of individual economic actors—consumers, investors, businesses—valuable new tools for identifying and pursuing economic opportunities, including faster and more informed analyses of economic trends around the world, easy transfers of assets, and collaboration with far-flung partners.
Globalization is deeply controversial, however. Proponents of globalization argue that it allows poor countries and their citizens to develop economically and raise their standards of living, while opponents of globalization claim that the creation of an unfettered international free market has benefited multinational corporations in the Western world at the expense of local enterprises, local cultures, and common people. Resistance to globalization has therefore taken shape both at a popular and at a governmental level as people and governments try to manage the flow of capital, labor, goods, and ideas that constitute the current wave of globalization.
To find the right balance between benefits and costs associated with globalization, citizens of all nations need to understand how globalization works and the policy choices facing them and their societies. Globalization101.org tries to provide an accurate analysis of the issues and controversies regarding globalization, especially to high-school and college students, without the slogans or ideological biases generally found in discussions of the topics. We welcome you to our website.
feature story n' more..........
What is a feature story?
It gets into the lives of people.
It tries to explain why and how a trend developed.
Unlike news, a feature does not have to be tied to a current event or a breaking story. But it can grow out of something that’s reported in the news.
It may be a profile of a person or a group -- an athlete, a performer, a politician, or a community worker or a team, a choir or a political organization. Or perhaps it’s an in-depth look at a social issue -- like violence in Canadian schools or eating disorders among young women. It could also be a story that gives the reader background on a topic that’s in the news -- like a story that explains how land mines work and the history of their use in war.
A feature story is usually longer than a news story -- but length is not a requirement! What’s more important is the form the story takes.
Think of the feature as the journalistic equivalent of an essay. Follow these guidelines:
start with a premise or theme
present information and opinions that back you point,
bring the reader to a conclusion.
The feature often explores several different points of views, even when the story is about one particular person.
The story behind the newsHere’s an example of how a feature can explain and explore a story that makes news:
Your local newspaper reports on the front page that school enrollments are dropping in your small community. The reason? Many people are being forced to leave the town to look for jobs in bigger cities and obviously, their children go with them. As a reporter you can go beyond the facts and figures in the news story by talking to one of the families who are leaving. How do they feel? What made them decide to go? What will they miss about home? What are they expecting in their new community? How do the children feel about leaving their school and their friends? Or you can look at the story from the point of view of the people who remain in the town. What’s it like to lose friends and family to far-away cities? How does it affect the school? What about the local economy?
The news story tells the audience what happened. The feature will tell them why and how it happened, how the people involved are reacting, and what impact the decision is having on other people.
Personality in profile
Indulge your curiosity -- and that of your readers -- with a profile of an interesting person.
You can look at someone who’s making news in your community, province or country. Or it could be someone who's relatively unknown to the public but who has done something unusual or remarkable. Here’s one example:
Your town elects a full slate of councillors to represent and serve the community. One is a 19-year-old student who was active in youth parliament and student politics. That makes him the youngest elected official in your province. But that’s not the whole story! He gets the most votes of any of the councillors, and according to the election rules, that makes him deputy mayor. What’s it like to be a politician when you’re still in your teens? What does your life experience add to the council? Are you seen as a spokesman for your generation -- but not the community as a whole? What do the other councillors think of their young colleague? Do people take you seriously?
That young politician may not be famous. But he’s certainly done something new. And his experiences will be something that others will want to learn more about.
Take a look at people from the world of sports, entertainment, politics, science, technology, business, health, international development, community activism, education, the military, the fine arts or any other field that interests you.
You can choose a subject and find out the basic facts of the person’s life and work. What have they learned so far? Are there any surprises? Is there an area of this person's life or work that the student would now like to focus on?
Write your profile by telling your readers the facts of this person's life — while adding the color and details that make them unique.
Talk to the person themselves whenever possible and use their own words to help tell their story.
Tracking a trendMany of the best stories come from reporters’ observations of the world around them. Here’s just one example of how you can come across a great feature story in your daily life:
YOU are hanging around with friends at lunch time and talking about plans for the weekend. Someone says they’ve heard that the town council is considering a curfew for teens. Everyone under 16 has to be off the streets by 11pm on weekends. You have your own curfew - set by your parents - but you are surprised to learn that the mayor wants to put one in place for everyone.
You talk to some of your friends to find out what they think. You and other concerned teens go over to the town hall and ask the mayor or one of the councillors why they see the need for a curfew. You surf the Net and find out what other towns and cities have been doing.
You find that this is a bit of trend in North America.
What you now have is the basis for a really interesting feature. You have taken a little piece of information and investigated further to find out what’s going on. The story will focus on the issue and the thoughts and feeling of the people involved — namely local teenagers and the people who made the decision about the curfew.
Feature writing tipsThe basic guidelines for good writing apply to all types of writing. However, if you expect to hold your readers attention for 1,000 words or more, your writing must be must be lively, specific and clear.
As a student writer you have to start with a lead that captures your reader’s attention.
It could be an anecdote you have heard during the course of your research.
It could be a description of a person, place or thing that draws the reader in and encourages them to learn more.
It could a newsy lead that highlights the point of the story.
Move your story along with descriptions of what happened, quotes from people involved in the issue, and details that place the reader in the midst of the action. Make sure your ending is meaningful. Your closing words should make an impact on your readers and tie the various strands of your story together.
A powerful quote can often make for a good ending. Or you may want to come full circle and refer back to a word or an image used in your opening sentences.
A 700 to 800 word limit will make an ideal newspaper feature whereas magazine features can be more elaborated and descriptive in nature with more than 15000 words! It is only required to be seen that the Beginning, middle and end part holds good in any literary exercise especially by adopting the four basic skills: a flair for good writing, an eye for the market, a talent for sound organization and writing skills.
Development journalism
Development journalism needs to adopt an action-oriented approach to help the country overcome challenges like poverty and illiteracy.
It therefore becomes crucial to question why despite ‘development’ journalism’s growing popularity, the empowered media doesn’t come across as action or cause oriented. As ‘development’ journalists increase in numbers, so do statistics on poverty, corruption, illiteracy, diseases and pollution. Is there some confusion between ‘development reporting’ and ‘development journalism’? What exactly is development journalism?
The Definition
According to Aman Namra, development journalism should focus on the needs of the poor, the deprived, the marginalized and should emphasize their effective participation in development planning. "The kind of journalism that motivates the active participation of the affected people and advocating for their interests, in place of the views of policy makers and planners." 2
Tsedu states that development journalism "is about highlighting what people are doing to help transform their lives. Whether they do this alongside the government or on their own is immaterial. The premise that development journalism is necessarily government oriented is faulty." He believes that since the strong and mighty are able to look after themselves, journalists should concern themselves with the plight of the poor and the weak.7
"Development is seen as humanity’s common objective and interpreted as a quest both to eradicate poverty and protect the environment," according to Berger5. Environmental journalism and development journalism go hand in hand. One is linked to the plant while the other to the people.
And yet, environmental journalism leads to bigger success stories while development journalism progressively seems to be turning into a fad. The difference is that environmental campaigns and journalism have empowered the people - the common mass. It is Recycle Paper vs. We are running out of trees. Development issues covered today are still largely fixed on informing.
We should strive for journalism where a common problem is identified and followed by probable solutions, leading to development. Merely reporting issues related to poverty, corruption, hunger and illiteracy is not only depressing but has been repeatedly done. Journalists committed to development should look at the situation beyond just reporting it.
Put simply, it is necessary to talk about development not in the ideological sense but in tangible and measurable terms - journalism that leads to actual development.
Court reporting
Court reporting is far more that sitting in court with a pen and paper. it is about examining the human angle, developing a story to i9ts full potential and giving the reae a clear, balanced picture. if an individual is cleared by a jury or on a legal technicality, try to interview them, their story is often better than anything anyone has heard in court.
No fundamental differences exist between court reporting and any other reporting. the requirements are the same: to understand what has happened and to report it fairly, accurately, clearly and in manner to catch the attention of the reader.
This can be fairly nerve-racking. You're faced with a new experience, or one that you've only seen in courtroom dramas. And knowing what you should do by now about the contempt of court act, you may feel as though you're on trial yourself.
Key information like:
- the name of the presiding magistrate or judge
- the name of the prosecuting lawyer
- details of cases worth looking out for
Cases usually start with the prosecuting lawyer outlining what happened. this is a key element of the case which will contribute a large part of your story, so you should be ready to take a full note.
Checklist
Visit the whole range of courts.
Go as often as you can.
Find out what time the court opens and cases start.
Take a law book with you to read.
Find out where the prison van accesses the court. If you're taking film footage, this may be one of the few shots that you can get.
Do not talk during the case. no chewing gum.
When taking notes do so quietly. Shorthand helps. Be accurate and check the spelling of all names. Don't get this wrong or you could end up being sued for defamation.
If there are journalists present, have a chat to them about the case and how they would approach reporting it.
You can leave the court any time, but choose your moment with care and leave quietly.
Parliamentary reporting (lobby reporting/journalist)
Parliamentary reporting is the foundation of 'fourth estate', what we called today for the journalist.
The 'Lobby Correspondents' are the main group of news reporters in political reporting. The lobby system is the main channel for the transmission of current political news: the main continuing political story is the relationship between prime minister and parliament house.
How well is the prime minister doing at present? How is the new legislation succeeding in its parliamentary passage? What conflicts are there in the cabinet/ who are the rising and falling stars within the government party and in opposition? When there is a big political story running, the senior newspaper lobby reporter/correspondent may be writing the front-page lead story for days or even weeks in succession.
The lobby system also contains many oddities, paradoxes, and obscurities. This reporting will look back to the1960s; lobby journalism perhaps reached its peak of importance. Since the 1960s both the political system and the media have opened and expanded. in particular there is now more television, there are more on-the-record press conferences. And also there is much more political column-writing and feature. However, within a more complex political system and within a bigger total quantity of political journalism, the lobby system is still central.
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